Undergraduate Exam Preparation
Classical Literary Criticism
Historical Context, Major Figures, & Critical Concepts
I. Historical Overview and Key Debates
| Period | Timeframe | Context & Event | Key Debates & Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Greek / Hellenistic | 4th C. BCE |
Ends with Battle of Actium (30 BCE).
Context: Rise of Athens; Shift from Oral to Written. |
|
| Roman | Post 30 BCE |
Flourished under Augustus.
Context: Pax Romana; Rise of Rhetoric. |
|
II. PLATO
c. 427–347 BCE (Athenian)1. Context & Profile
Plato, a disciple of Socrates, sought a cure for the ills of society not in politics, but in Philosophy. He challenged the traditional authority of poets.
- Innovator: Created the Dialectic form (Question & Answer). Wrote 35 Dialogues.
- Paradox: As noted by Sir Philip Sidney: “Of all the philosophers, I have esteemed him most worthy of reverence… since of all the philosophers he is the most poetical.”
Key Dialogues
- Ion: Poetic Inspiration (Divine Possession / Magnet).
- The Republic: The Ideal State, Banishment of Poets (Bk X), Cave Allegory (Bk VII).
- Phaedrus: Rhetoric & the Soul.
2. The Theory of Mimesis (Imitation)
In The Republic (Book X), Plato attacks poetry based on his Theory of Forms (Ideas). He argues that material reality is merely a shadow of the Ideal Form (Truth).
1. THE IDEA
Ultimate Reality (God)
Original
→
2. THE OBJECT
Material Reality (Carpenter)
Copy
3. THE ART
Poetry / Painting (Artist)
“Copy of a Copy” — Twice Removed from Truth
3. The 3 Grounds for Banishment
Plato advocates banishing poets from the Commonwealth for three primary reasons:
Intellectual
Art is a lie. It offers no knowledge, only an illusion. It appeals to the inferior part of the soul, not Reason/Intellect.
Moral
Poetry depicts Gods with human flaws (lust, anger). Plato linked the Ideal of Beauty directly with Truth and Goodness; art must embody these virtues to be moral. Impersonating evil characters corrupts the soul.
Emotional
“Feeds and waters the passions.” It encourages lack of control (hysterical weeping/laughing) rather than stoic endurance.
Critical Concepts
- Allegory of the Cave (Republic Bk VII): A metaphor for enlightenment. Prisoners in a cave see shadows on a wall (the sensory world/art) and mistake them for reality. The Philosopher sees the Sun (Truth).
- Divine Inspiration (Ion): Socrates argues that poets do not write by skill (Art) but by possession.
“The poet is a light and winged thing, and holy… poets are nothing but the interpreters of gods.” This creates a “Magnetic Chain”: God → Muse → Poet → Actor → Spectator.
III. ARISTOTLE
c. 384–322 BCE (The Lyceum)1. The Defense of Poetry
In the Poetics, Aristotle systematically refutes Plato’s charges:
- Mimesis (Revised): It is not mere mimicry, but Creative Representation. It is a natural human instinct for learning and pleasure.
- Poetry vs. History: “Poetry is something more philosophical and of graver import than history.”
- — Poetry: Speaks of Universals (what might happen according to probability).
- — History: Speaks of Particulars (what actually happened).
- Organic Unity: The work must be a complete, well-structured whole, like a living organism.
Definition of Tragedy (Chapter 6)
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with pleasurable accessories… in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper Catharsis of these emotions.”
The Goal: To achieve balance in the individual’s emotional life (Purgation/Purification).
2. The 6 Elements of Tragedy (Ranked)
- Plot (Mythos): The “Soul” of Tragedy. The arrangement of incidents.
- Character (Ethos): Qualities of the agents.
- Thought (Dianoia): Ability to say what is appropriate.
- Diction (Lexis)
- Song (Melopoiia)
- Spectacle (Opsis): Least artistic element.
Plot Mechanics
- Hamartia: Error in judgment (“Missing the mark”). It is not a moral sin or vice.
- Peripeteia: Reversal of fortune (Good to Bad).
- Anagnorisis: Recognition (Ignorance → Knowledge).
- Complex Plot: Contains Peripeteia and Anagnorisis (Superior to Simple Plot).
- The Golden Rule: “A probable impossibility is preferable to an improbable possibility.”
Roman Context: Focused heavily on practical instruction (craftsmanship) and the moral instruction of the audience.
IV. A. HORACE
c. 65–8 BCE (Augustan Age)Ars Poetica (Epistle to Pisos)
A verse letter providing practical guidance on composition, diction, and revision.
- Core Principle: Utile et Dulce (“To teach and to please”). Poetry must instruct and delight simultaneously to be valuable.
- Style: Stressed moderation, balance, and order.
- Revisions: The 9-Year Rule (Keep your parchment for nine years before publishing). Words once released cannot be taken back.
- Nature vs. Art: Genius (Nature) is not enough; it needs Discipline/Training (Art). “Polish, polish, polish.”
Key Terminology
- Ut Pictura Poesis
- “As is painting, so is poetry.” (Visual nature of art).
- In Medias Res
- Start “in the middle of things” (like Homer), not Ab Ovo (from the egg/beginning).
- Decorum
- Fitness/Appropriateness. A king must speak like a king; an old man like an old man.
Rules for Drama
- Must have exactly 5 Acts.
- No more than 3 speaking actors on stage.
- Meter: Use Iambic Pentameter.
- The Chorus must be an actor (participate in action).
- No violence on stage (Medea must not kill her children in front of audience; it must be reported).
IV. B. LONGINUS
1st Century CE (“The First Romantic Critic”)Work: On the Sublime (Peri Hupsous). Addressed to Terentianus.
Focus: The qualities that elevate literature and give it enduring value.
Definition of The Sublime
“Sublimity is a certain loftiness and excellence in language… striking the reader with irresistible force.”
The Effect: Produces Transport (Ekstasis) / Elevation. It does not merely persuade; it entrances.
The Test: “That is true Sublime which pleases all, and pleases always.” The effect is immediate and cannot be resisted.
The 5 Principal Sources of Sublimity
| Innate (Nature) *Most Influential Sources | Acquired (Art/Technique) |
|---|---|
|
|
Hindrances (False Sublime)
- Tumidity: Bombast/Swelling language.
- Puerility: Childish, pedantic conceit.
- Frigidity: Coldness, lack of passion.
- Parenthyrsus: Cheap, empty display of passion.
Critical Stance
- Prefers a “Faulty Homer” (Genius with slips) to a “Faultless Apollonius” (Mediocrity).
- Metaphor Rule: Unlike Aristotle (limit 2), Longinus says you can use any number if passion demands it.
- Example: Quotes Sappho’s “Ode to Jealousy”.
V. DANTE ALIGHIERI
1265–1321 (Italian)De Vulgari Eloquentia
- Work: On Vernacular Eloquence (written in Latin, unfinished).
- Goal: A plea for writing in the Vernacular (Native Tongue) over Latin.
- Legacy: He aimed to establish an “Illustrious Vernacular” for high literature, “naturalizing” the Grand Style in Italian (as Milton did for English).
- Quote: Vida (Italian Critic, 1527) later said: “Visit the ancients and strip them of their wealth.”
The “Illustrious Vernacular”
To equal Latin, the native tongue must be:
Illustrious
(Shining)
(Shining)
Cardinal
(Central)
(Central)
Courtly
(Of the Court)
(Of the Court)
Curial
(Lawful/Balanced)
(Lawful/Balanced)
Requirements for Grand Style
| 1. Vocabulary | Must use “Combed” and “Glossy” words (Urban/Sophisticated). Strictly avoid “Shaggy” and “Rustic” words. |
| 2. Style | Must use the “Highest Construction” (Complex sentence structure). |
| 3. Themes | Only 3 themes are worthy of the Grand Style: 🛡️ Salus (Safety/Arms) | ❤️ Venus (Love) | ✨ Virtus (Virtue/Philosophy) |