Alternative Centres of Power

Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Chapter 4 of Contemporary World Politics is one of the most heavily tested chapters in GS Paper 2. The rise of alternative power centres — the European Union, ASEAN, and China — is central to understanding the shift from US unipolarity to a multipolar world order. UPSC Prelims regularly features questions on EU institutions, ASEAN founding facts, China's Belt and Road Initiative, BRICS expansion, and the SCO. Mains GS Paper 2 repeatedly asks about multipolarity, India's strategic positioning, and the significance of regional organisations for global governance.

Contemporary hook (for Mains introductions): The post-Cold War dream of a US-dominated unipolar world has given way to a complex multipolar reality. The EU navigates internal tensions post-Brexit while remaining the world's largest single market. ASEAN has institutionalised itself into a rules-based regional architecture. China's Belt and Road Initiative has reshaped connectivity across Asia, Africa, and Europe. Together, these developments define the 21st-century international order that India must navigate with strategic acuity.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

📌 Key Fact: Essential Dates and Numbers

European Union: From ECSC to EU — Integration Milestones

ASEAN: Key Facts and Expansion

China's Rise: Key Economic Indicators

Multipolar World: Key Groupings

PART 2 — Chapter Narrative

The European Union: From War to Integration

Origins: The Logic of Integration After World War II

Two catastrophic world wars in 30 years — both starting in Europe — convinced European statesmen that traditional nation-state rivalry had to be transcended. The idea of a "United States of Europe" had long been a dream; after 1945, it became a practical necessity.

The intellectual foundations were laid by visionaries like Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman (France) and Konrad Adenauer (Germany). Their insight: if France and Germany — the two great rivals whose conflict had repeatedly devastated Europe — could be bound together economically, war between them would become impossible.

The key mechanism was functional integration — start with specific economic sectors, build habits of cooperation, create institutions, and gradually expand the scope of integration. This was the theory of "spill-over": integration in one sector would create pressures for integration in related sectors.

The ECSC (1951): First Step

The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 18 April 1951, entering into force on 24 July 1952. The six founding states were France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg — the same six that would later sign the Treaty of Rome.

The ECSC placed French and German coal and steel production under a common High Authority (a supranational body). The strategic logic: coal and steel were the raw materials of war — control their production jointly, and war becomes logistically impossible. It worked. Franco-German reconciliation became one of the greatest diplomatic achievements of the 20th century.

💡 Explainer: What Is Supranationalism?

The EU is unlike any international organisation in history because it is supranational — it has institutions that can make binding decisions on member states without each state individually consenting to each decision. The High Authority of the ECSC, and later the European Commission, could issue rules that were directly binding in member states without needing national parliamentary approval. This is fundamentally different from traditional international organisations (like the UN or ASEAN) where sovereignty remains entirely with member states. The EU sits between an international organisation and a federal state.

The Treaty of Rome (1957): The Common Market

The Treaty of Rome was signed on 25 March 1957 by the same six states, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and entering into force on 1 January 1958. This was the breakthrough moment in European integration.

The EEC created:

• A customs union — common external tariff; no internal tariffs between members
• A common market — free movement of goods, services, labour, and capital (the "four freedoms")
• Common policies in agriculture (Common Agricultural Policy, CAP) and trade
• The European Commission, European Parliament (then called the Assembly), and the Court of Justice

The Treaty of Rome also created EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community) for nuclear energy cooperation.

The Maastricht Treaty (1992): Birth of the European Union

The Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union, TEU), signed on 7 February 1992 by then-12 member states, was the most transformative step in European integration. It:

1. Created the European Union — replacing/encompassing the European Communities
2. Introduced the euro — a single currency for participating member states (the "Eurozone"), ultimately launched in 1999 for financial transactions and 2002 for coins and notes
3. Created EU citizenship — every national of a member state became also an EU citizen
4. Established the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) — giving the EU a foreign policy voice
5. Created Police and Judicial Cooperation — the "third pillar" on justice and home affairs
6. Introduced the principle of subsidiarity — decisions to be taken at the lowest effective level

📌 Key Fact: EU Institutions

EU Enlargement: From 6 to 27

The EU has expanded in successive waves:

• 1973: UK, Ireland, Denmark (UK later left in 2020)
• 1981: Greece
• 1986: Spain, Portugal
• 1995: Austria, Finland, Sweden
• 2004: "Big Bang" enlargement — 10 states: Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Cyprus
• 2007: Bulgaria, Romania
• 2013: Croatia (current most recent member)
• Current total: 27 member states after the UK's withdrawal in 2020

🔗 Beyond the Book: Brexit and Its Lessons

The UK voted to leave the EU in a referendum on 23 June 2016 (52% to 48% for Leave). Formal withdrawal occurred on 31 January 2020, with a transition period ending 31 December 2020. Brexit was the first-ever withdrawal from the EU under Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty.

Key lessons for India's UPSC Mains:

• Sovereignty vs. Integration tension: Brexit showed that even deep economic integration can be reversed when national sovereignty concerns reach a tipping point.
• Economic cost: UK GDP growth slowed; trade with the EU fell; financial services lost "passporting" rights.
• Irish border problem: Brexit created new complications on the Northern Ireland/Republic of Ireland border — underscoring how deeply integrated EU membership had made European states.
• EU resilience: Despite predictions that Brexit would trigger other exits ("Contagion"), no other state has followed. EU remains a powerful integration project.

EU as a Soft Power: The World's Largest Single Market

The EU's global significance goes beyond its political institutions:

• Single market: The EU's internal market is one of the world's largest trading blocs. All 27 states trade without tariffs or border controls, giving EU businesses access to 450 million consumers.
• Euro: The euro is the world's second most used reserve currency after the US dollar. 20 of 27 EU states use the euro (Eurozone).
• Trade policy: The EU negotiates trade agreements as a bloc, making it a more powerful negotiating partner than any individual European state. India and the EU have been negotiating a Free Trade Agreement for years.
• Regulatory power: EU regulations (on data privacy, food safety, product standards) have global reach — non-EU companies must comply to access the EU market (the "Brussels Effect").
• Development aid: The EU is the world's largest provider of development assistance.

🎯 UPSC Connect: EU for GS Paper 2

For Prelims: Know the founding dates (ECSC 1951, EEC 1957, Maastricht 1992), institutions and their roles, current member count (27), Eurozone member count (20), and Brexit date (31 January 2020).

For Mains: The EU is often asked about as a model of regional integration (compare with ASEAN), as an example of supranationalism, or in the context of India-EU relations. Key Mains angles: (1) Can SAARC learn from EU? (2) What does Brexit teach about sovereignty-integration tradeoffs? (3) India-EU FTA prospects and strategic partnership.

ASEAN: The "ASEAN Way" and Southeast Asian Regionalism

Founding and Context (1967)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, through the signing of the Bangkok Declaration (ASEAN Declaration). The five founding states were Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.

The context was Cold War anxiety: Southeast Asia was a battleground of superpower competition (the Vietnam War was raging), newly independent states feared communist insurgencies, and there were bilateral disputes between the founding states themselves (Indonesia-Malaysia Konfrontasi had just ended in 1966; Philippines claimed parts of Malaysia). ASEAN was conceived as a stability mechanism as much as an economic cooperation framework.

Five Founding Foreign Ministers:

1. Adam Malik — Indonesia
2. Tun Abdul Razak — Malaysia
3. Narciso R. Ramos — Philippines
4. S. Rajaratnam — Singapore
5. Thanat Khoman — Thailand

The "ASEAN Way": Soft Institutionalism

What makes ASEAN distinctive is its operating philosophy — the "ASEAN Way":

1. Non-interference: Member states do not interfere in each other's internal affairs — Myanmar's military rule, Vietnam's one-party system, and Brunei's sultanate coexist within ASEAN without mutual criticism.
2. Consensus-based decision-making: All major decisions require the agreement of all members — no majority voting that can override a state.
3. Informality and flexibility: ASEAN prefers informal consultations ("ASEAN minus X" formula allows willing members to proceed without unanimous agreement in some economic matters).
4. Preference for dialogue over confrontation: ASEAN has dealt with the South China Sea disputes through dialogue rather than binding legal mechanisms.

💡 Explainer: ASEAN Way — Strength or Weakness?

The "ASEAN Way" is both ASEAN's greatest strength and its most criticised feature. Strength: It made possible an organisation where states with radically different political systems (democracies, one-party states, a sultanate, a military-backed state) could cooperate. It kept Southeast Asia from fracturing along ideological lines during the Cold War. Weakness: Consensus requirement means the lowest common denominator prevails. ASEAN's response to the South China Sea is constrained because China maintains close ties with Cambodia and other members who block strong collective statements. ASEAN's silence on Myanmar's military coup (2021) reflected the limits of non-interference.

ASEAN Expansion: From 5 to 10

ASEAN expanded in stages to cover all of Southeast Asia:

• 1984: Brunei Darussalam
• 1995: Vietnam
• 1997: Laos and Myanmar
• 1999: Cambodia

The inclusion of Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia — all communist or post-communist states — demonstrated ASEAN's ideological flexibility and its "ASEAN Way" of engagement over isolation.

Key ASEAN Mechanisms

ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA): Agreed in 1992; aimed to reduce intra-ASEAN tariffs to 0-5% through the Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) scheme. Significantly boosted intra-ASEAN trade.

ASEAN Charter (2007): Signed on 20 November 2007 at the 13th ASEAN Summit in Singapore; entered into force in December 2008. This was a landmark — it gave ASEAN a legal personality and a more formal institutional structure, creating the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights and establishing the three-community framework.

ASEAN Community (2015): Formally launched in 2015, built on three pillars:

1. ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)
2. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): Established in July 1994 — the first multilateral security dialogue forum in Asia-Pacific. Members include all ASEAN states plus the US, China, Russia, India, Japan, Australia, EU, and others. India has been a member since 1996.

ASEAN+3: ASEAN plus China, Japan, and South Korea — a forum that emerged from the 1997 Asian financial crisis for economic cooperation, particularly on financial stability.

East Asia Summit (EAS): Annual summit bringing together ASEAN states plus China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, New Zealand, and (since 2011) the US and Russia.

India-ASEAN Relations

India-ASEAN relations have deepened significantly since the 1990s, driven by India's Look East Policy (launched 1991-92, renamed Act East Policy in 2014).

Key milestones:

• India became ASEAN Dialogue Partner in 1992
• India-ASEAN Summit-level relations established in 2002
• India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement in Goods signed in 2009, in force 2010
• India-ASEAN Strategic Partnership declared in 2012
• India-ASEAN Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2022
• ASEAN-India Summit has been held annually since 2002

India's strategic interests in ASEAN: Counter-balance to China's influence in Southeast Asia; trade and connectivity (ASEAN is India's 4th largest trading partner); security cooperation in the Indian Ocean and Indo-Pacific.

🔗 Beyond the Book: ASEAN and the South China Sea

The South China Sea is ASEAN's most contentious contemporary challenge. China claims approximately 90% of the South China Sea based on its "nine-dash line" — a claim that overlaps with the exclusive economic zones of Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia. The 2016 Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling (Philippines vs China) rejected China's nine-dash line claims, but China refused to recognise the ruling. ASEAN has struggled to adopt a unified Code of Conduct with China because Cambodia and Laos — economically dependent on China — have blocked stronger language. This illustrates the limits of the "ASEAN Way" in dealing with a great power.

China's Rise: The Making of a New Great Power

Economic Reforms (1978): Deng Xiaoping's Revolution

China's transformation from a poor agrarian economy to the world's second-largest economy (largest by PPP) is one of the most dramatic stories in modern history. It was set in motion by Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms launched at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CCP Central Committee on 18 December 1978.

Key features of China's reform and opening-up (改革开放, Gaige Kaifang):

• De-collectivisation of agriculture: Abolished People's Communes; introduced the Household Responsibility System — farmers could sell surplus output on the open market.
• Township and Village Enterprises (TVEs): Rural industries outside the state plan; engine of early growth.
• Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Areas like Shenzhen (near Hong Kong) where foreign investment was welcomed, market prices applied, and export-oriented manufacturing flourished.
• Gradual price reform: Dual-track pricing system; gradually expanded market pricing.
• "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics": The ideological formula that allowed capitalist economic mechanisms within a communist political system.

The result: China's economy grew at an average of 9.5% per year from 1978 to 2013 — the fastest sustained growth of any major economy in history. Hundreds of millions of people were lifted out of poverty.

WTO Entry (2001) and Global Integration

China joined the World Trade Organization on 11 December 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. WTO entry:

• Committed China to lowering tariffs and opening its market to foreign competition
• In practice, gave China access to global markets on most-favoured-nation terms
• Triggered a manufacturing boom — China became the "world's factory"
• China's share of global manufacturing rose to approximately 28-30%
• China displaced the US as the world's largest trading nation

📌 Key Fact: China's Global Economic Weight (2025)

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): China's Grand Strategy

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was announced by President Xi Jinping on 7 September 2013 in Astana, Kazakhstan (Silk Road Economic Belt) and in Jakarta, Indonesia (21st Century Maritime Silk Road) — recreating ancient trade routes.

BRI consists of:

1. Silk Road Economic Belt: Six overland corridors connecting China to Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia via roads, railways, and pipelines
2. 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: Sea routes connecting China's coast to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and Europe via port development

Scale: As of 2025, BRI involves investments in 150+ countries, with participating nations accounting for nearly 75% of the world's population and over half of global GDP.

Key corridors include:

• China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): ~$62 billion; connects Kashgar (Xinjiang) to Gwadar port on the Arabian Sea — gives China a sea route bypassing the Strait of Malacca
• China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC): Access to Bay of Bengal
• China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor
• New Eurasian Land Bridge (China to Europe by rail)

💡 Explainer: Why India Opposes CPEC and BRI

India has consistently refused to endorse BRI and has specifically objected to CPEC because CPEC passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) — territory India claims as its own. India's position is that any connectivity project passing through disputed territory is a violation of sovereignty. Beyond the territorial issue, India is also concerned about: (1) China gaining naval influence at Gwadar (the "String of Pearls" theory — Chinese port investments at Hambantota in Sri Lanka, Gwadar in Pakistan, Chittagong in Bangladesh potentially encircling India); (2) debt-trap diplomacy — smaller countries accumulating unsustainable debt to China and potentially losing strategic assets; (3) BRI's lack of transparency and environmental/labour standards. India has promoted its own connectivity alternatives — the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).

China-India Relations: Cooperation and Competition

India and China share the world's longest disputed land border (approximately 3,488 km). Their relationship has alternated between cooperation and confrontation.

Historical context:

• Both are ancient civilisations with a long history of trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Road and through Buddhism
• Panchsheel Agreement (1954): India and China signed the "Agreement on Trade and Intercourse Between Tibet Region of China and India," incorporating the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel) — mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence
• "Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai" (India-China are brothers): Slogan of India-China friendship in the 1950s

The 1962 War: The Sino-Indian War of 1962 was a devastating rupture. China launched a massive military offensive on 20 October 1962 along the disputed border in Ladakh and NEFA (now Arunachal Pradesh). India suffered a humiliating military defeat. China unilaterally declared a ceasefire on 21 November 1962 and withdrew to pre-war positions but retained its gains in Aksai Chin (Ladakh). The war shattered Nehru's foreign policy optimism and left a deep scar on India-China relations.

Subsequent border disputes:

• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) — the de facto border — remains disputed and undemarcated
• Doklam Standoff (2017): 73-day military standoff between Indian and Chinese troops at Doklam (trijunction of India, China, Bhutan) — India intervened to prevent China from building a road
• Galwan Valley Clash (June 2020): The deadliest border clash since 1967 — 20 Indian soldiers and at least 4 Chinese soldiers killed in the Galwan Valley (Ladakh). Led to significant deterioration in bilateral relations; India banned Chinese apps, restricted Chinese investment
• Disengagement (2024-25): India and China reached buffer zone agreements at several friction points; diplomatic engagement resumed

🎯 UPSC Connect: China-India-Pakistan Triangle

A recurring Mains theme is the "China-Pakistan-India Triangle." Key points:

• CPEC directly impacts India's security — gives China a land route to the Indian Ocean bypassing India
• China-Pakistan "all-weather strategic cooperation partnership" is seen as a two-front threat by India
• China's use of UNSC veto to block designation of Pakistan-based terrorists (Masood Azhar, etc.) as global terrorists undermines India's counter-terrorism efforts
• India's response: Deepening ties with US, Japan, Australia (Quad); IMEC connectivity alternative to BRI; SCO membership to engage China diplomatically

Towards a Multipolar World Order

Unipolarity and Its Limits (1991–2000s)

The end of the Cold War in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower — ushering in what Charles Krauthammer called the "unipolar moment." The US-led "Washington Consensus" promoted liberal democracy and free market capitalism globally; US military might was unmatched. The Gulf War (1991), NATO expansion, and the 1999 Kosovo intervention all demonstrated US primacy.

However, unipolarity carried the seeds of its own erosion. The failures in Iraq (2003) and Afghanistan (2001–2021), the 2008 global financial crisis originating in the US, and China's rapid rise all challenged US preponderance.

Multipolarity: Theory and Reality

Multipolarity describes a world order with multiple centres of power, none dominant enough to dictate outcomes. Theorists like Waltz and Mearsheimer debated whether multipolarity was more or less stable than bipolarity.

Contemporary multipolarity involves:

1. US: Remains the world's largest nominal GDP and strongest military; leads Quad, NATO, G7
2. China: Largest PPP GDP; dominant manufacturing power; BRI reshapes global connectivity
3. European Union: Largest single market; regulatory superpower; significant diplomatic weight
4. Russia: Military power (especially nuclear); energy leverage over Europe; SCO partner
5. India: Fastest-growing major economy (2025); third largest PPP economy; leading Global South voice
6. Regional organisations: ASEAN, African Union, etc., as collective poles

BRICS: An Alternative Financial Architecture

BRICS began as an economic concept coined by Goldman Sachs economist Jim O'Neill in 2001 (originally "BRIC"). The four countries held their first formal summit in 2009 in Yekaterinburg, Russia; South Africa joined in 2010.

2024 expansion: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and UAE became full members in January 2024; Indonesia joined in early 2025. Thirteen more countries were invited as "partner countries" in October 2024.

BRICS as an alternative:

• New Development Bank (NDB): BRICS development bank, headquartered in Shanghai, established in 2015; India's former Finance Minister K.V. Kamath was its first president
• Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA): $100 billion emergency liquidity fund to protect against balance-of-payments crises
• De-dollarisation agenda: Growing push within BRICS to reduce dependence on the US dollar in trade and reserves — though this remains aspirational

India's role in BRICS: India is a founding member and has used BRICS to advance the Global South agenda, push for reform of international institutions, and maintain engagement with China and Russia while also participating in Western-led forums.

SCO: Eurasian Security Architecture

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) was established in 2001 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. India became a full member in June 2017 (along with Pakistan).

SCO's focus areas: security cooperation against terrorism, separatism, and extremism ("three evils"); economic cooperation; cultural exchange.

India's SCO calculus: engaging China and Russia on security issues in a multilateral framework; countering terrorism in the region; managing Pakistan in a diplomatic context.

🔗 Beyond the Book: India's "Multi-Alignment" Strategy

India has evolved from Cold War non-alignment to what is now called "multi-alignment" — active simultaneous engagement with multiple power groupings without exclusive alliance to any. India is a founding member of BRICS (with China and Russia) AND a member of the Quad (with the US, Japan, Australia). India joined SCO (with China, Russia, Pakistan) AND deepened defence ties with the US (COMCASA, BECA, LEMOA agreements). India chaired the G20 in 2023, setting a Global South agenda. This "strategic autonomy in a multipolar world" is the contemporary evolution of Nehru's non-alignment — adapted to a more complex geopolitical landscape.

PART 3 — Frameworks & Mnemonics

Framework: Three Models of Regional Integration

Mnemonic: ASEAN Founding Five — "Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand"

"I Make People Smile Today"

I = Indonesia, M = Malaysia, P = Philippines, S = Singapore, T = Thailand

Mnemonic: EU Integration Sequence — "ECSC → EEC → EU"

"Every Economy Creates Unity"

E = ECSC (1951) → E = EEC Treaty of Rome (1957) → C = Common Market builds (1986 Single Act) → U = Union (Maastricht 1992)

Framework: China's Rise — Three Phases

Phase 1 (1978–2001): Reform and Opening Up Deng Xiaoping's reforms; SEZs; "socialism with Chinese characteristics"; average 9.5% growth

Phase 2 (2001–2013): WTO Integration and Global Factory WTO entry 2001; China becomes world's largest goods trader; massive foreign exchange reserves built up; "peaceful rise" doctrine

Phase 3 (2013–present): Xi Jinping's Assertive China BRI announced 2013; South China Sea assertiveness; Galwan 2020 with India; Made in China 2025; decoupling tensions with US

Framework: Multipolar World — India's Strategic Positioning

India sits at multiple intersections:

• With the West: Quad (security), G7 outreach, US defence partnerships
• With Russia: Continued defence imports (S-400), SCO, BRICS
• With China: SCO, BRICS, RIC (Russia-India-China), but also border tensions
• With Global South: G20 presidency 2023, IBSA, Voice of Global South summits
• With Southeast Asia: Act East Policy, ASEAN Strategic Partnership, BIMSTEC

The essence: India refuses to be a junior partner in anyone's alliance system while actively shaping multiple multilateral frameworks.

Exam Strategy

For Prelims: Master the founding dates — ECSC (1951), EEC/Treaty of Rome (1957), Maastricht Treaty (1992), ASEAN (8 August 1967), ASEAN Charter (2007), China WTO entry (2001), BRI announcement (2013), BRICS first summit (2009), India joins SCO (2017), Brexit (31 January 2020), EU members (27), ASEAN members (10). Know the EU institutions and their distinct roles — Commission vs Council vs European Parliament vs European Council. Know ASEAN's five founding members and founding fathers.

For Mains: Four high-value angles:

1. EU as model: Can ASEAN or SAARC replicate EU-style integration? Argue with structural differences (sovereignty attitudes, historical enmities, economic disparities).
2. China's rise and India's response: Multi-alignment, Act East Policy, IMEC vs BRI, Quad — systematically address each.
3. Multipolarity and India: Is a multipolar world better for India than unipolarity? Argue with recent evidence (G20 2023, BRICS expansion, India's G7 engagement).
4. ASEAN Way critique: Consensus-based regionalism — strength or weakness in the face of Chinese assertiveness?

Answer-writing tip: When asked about regional organisations in Mains, always use the comparison framework: founding context → membership → institutional mechanisms → achievements → limitations → relevance for India. This structure impresses examiners with systematic analysis.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q1. The Treaty of Maastricht that gave birth to the European Union was signed in: (A) 1957 (B) 1986 (C) 1992 (D) 1999

Answer: C — The Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992.

Q2. Which of the following was NOT among the five original founding members of ASEAN? (A) Indonesia (B) Vietnam (C) Philippines (D) Thailand

Answer: B — Vietnam joined ASEAN in 1995, not at its founding in 1967. The original five were Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.

Q3. Consider the following about the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI):

1. It was announced by Xi Jinping in 2013.
2. India is a member of the BRI.
3. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a part of BRI.

Which of the above statements is/are correct? (A) 1 only (B) 1 and 3 only (C) 2 and 3 only (D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: B — India has not joined BRI and has specifically objected to CPEC passing through PoK. Statements 1 and 3 are correct.

Mains

Q1. "The rise of China as an alternative centre of power challenges the US-led liberal international order but also opens opportunities for India's multi-alignment strategy." Critically examine. (CSE Mains 2021, GS Paper 2, 15 marks)

Q2. "The European Union and ASEAN represent two contrasting models of regional integration — one supranational, the other intergovernmental. Evaluate the relevance of each model for regional cooperation in South Asia." (CSE Mains 2019, GS Paper 2, 15 marks)