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Master words that elevate your UPSC Essay, GS answer writing, and Interview performance.
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A
Abatement
/əˈbeɪt.mənt/The act of reducing the intensity, amount, or degree of something, particularly the reduction or elimination of pollution, nuisance, or environmental degradation.
Abhinaya
/əˈbhɪnəjə/The art of expression in Indian performing arts — the technique of "leading an audience towards" the experience of an aesthetic emotion (rasa) through four means: body movements (angika), speech (vachika), costume and makeup (aharya), and emotional states (sattvika).
Absolute Poverty
/ˈæbsəluːt ˈpɒvəti/A state in which household income is below a set threshold necessary to meet basic needs — food, water, shelter, clothing, and healthcare — regardless of the income levels of others in society; contrasted with *relative poverty* (being poor compared to others in the same society).
Accession
/əkˈsɛʃən/The formal act of a princely state joining or merging with the Indian Union (or Pakistan) through the legal instrument known as the Instrument of Accession, by which the ruler ceded specified subjects to the new dominion.
Accession
/əkˈsɛʃ.ən/The formal act by which a ruler or state agrees to join or come under the authority of another political entity, thereby ceding specified sovereign powers.
Accountability
/əˌkaʊntəˈbɪlɪti/The obligation of public officials and institutions to answer for their actions, accept responsibility for outcomes, and submit to external oversight.
Adaptation
/ˌædæpˈteɪʃən/The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities.
Additive Manufacturing
/ˈædɪtɪv ˌmænjʊˈfæktʃərɪŋ/A fabrication process in which three-dimensional objects are built layer by layer from digital design files using materials such as plastics, metals, ceramics, or living cells — the opposite of subtractive manufacturing (machining, cutting, drilling).
Adjournment
/əˈdʒɜːn.mənt/A temporary suspension of the sitting of a House by the presiding officer, which may be for a specified time (hours, days, or weeks) and does not terminate the session or kill pending business.
Affirmative Action
/əˈfɜːmətɪv ˈækʃən/A policy that takes the identity of a historically disadvantaged group (based on caste, race, sex, religion, or disability) as a positive factor in allocating opportunities — including admission to educational institutions, employment in government, and election to representative bodies — to redress past injustice and accelerate social equality.
Ageism
/ˈeɪdʒɪzəm/Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age -- particularly directed towards older persons. Manifests in healthcare denial, employment discrimination, social exclusion, and patronising attitudes.
Agglomeration
/əˌɡlɒməˈɹeɪʃən/The clustering or concentration of industries and economic activities in a particular area, which reduces shared costs through common infrastructure, a pooled labour market, and proximity to ancillary services.
Ahimsa
/ʌˈhɪm.sɑː/The ancient Indian ethical principle of non-violence and non-injury toward all living beings, central to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and adopted by Gandhi as the moral foundation of the independence movement.
Aid to Civil Authority
/eɪd tuː ˈsɪv.əl ɔːˈθɒr.ɪ.ti/A legal and operational framework under which the armed forces of a country are deployed to assist civilian government agencies in managing situations — including natural disasters, public order crises, and emergencies — that exceed civilian capacity, with the military operating in a supporting role under the overarching authority of the civil administration.
Albedo
/ælˈbiːdoʊ/The fraction of incoming solar radiation that is reflected by a surface, measured on a scale from 0 (total absorption) to 1 (total reflection), with Earth's average albedo being approximately 0.30.
Algorithm
/ˈæl.ɡə.rɪð.əm/A finite, well-defined sequence of computational steps or instructions designed to solve a specific problem or perform a calculation.
Algorithmic Bias
/ˌalgəˈrɪðmɪk ˈbaɪəs/Systematic and repeatable errors in an AI system's outputs that create unfair outcomes for particular groups, arising from biased training data, flawed model design, or unrepresentative datasets -- resulting in discrimination in areas such as hiring, lending, criminal sentencing, and healthcare.
Allele
/əˈliːl/One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same position (locus) on a chromosome and control the same trait.
Alliance
/əˈlaɪəns/A formal agreement or union between two or more states for mutual support, coordinated action, or collective defence in pursuit of shared strategic objectives.
Alloy
/ˈælɔɪ/A homogeneous metallic substance composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, combined to achieve improved properties such as hardness, strength, or corrosion resistance.
Alluvial
/əˈluːviəl/Relating to or composed of sediment (clay, silt, sand, gravel) deposited by flowing water, especially in river valleys and floodplains.
Altruism
/ˈæl.tru.ɪ.zəm/The selfless concern for and devotion to the welfare of others, involving actions that benefit another person at a potential cost to oneself, without expectation of personal gain.
Amara-Nayaka
/əˈmɑːrə ˈnɑːjəkə/A military commander in the Vijayanagara Empire who held a territorial assignment called an *amaram*, with obligations to maintain troops for the king, pay revenue to the imperial treasury, and administer the assigned region.
Amendment
/əˈmɛndmənt/A formal alteration or addition to the Constitution of India, effected through the procedure laid down in Article 368, which may require a simple majority, special majority, or special majority with ratification by half the state legislatures depending on the provision being changed.
Ancien Regime
/ɑ̃.sjɛ̃ ʁeˈʒiːm/The political and social system of France before the Revolution of 1789, characterised by absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, and a rigidly stratified society of three estates.
Annexation
/ˌænɛkˈseɪʃən/The forcible incorporation of a territory or state into the domain of another political entity, as practised by the British East India Company through policies like the Doctrine of Lapse.
Annual Financial Statement
/ˈænjuəl faɪˈnænʃəl ˈsteɪtmənt/The formal constitutional name for the Union Budget — a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for each financial year, required under Article 112 of the Constitution to be laid before both Houses of Parliament.
Anonymity
/ˌænəˈnɪmɪti/The state of being unidentified or unrecognisable, particularly in the context of communications where the identity of the author or source is concealed from the audience and from authorities.
Anti-profiteering
/ˌæntɪ-ˈprɒfɪtɪərɪŋ/Legal mandate under Section 171 of CGST Act requiring businesses to pass on benefits of GST rate reductions or ITC gains to consumers
Antibiotic
/ˌæntɪbaɪˈɒtɪk/A substance, originally produced by microorganisms such as fungi or bacteria, that can destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria — ineffective against viruses.
Antigen
/ˈæntɪdʒən/Any substance — typically a protein on the surface of a pathogen — that is recognised as foreign by the immune system and triggers the production of antibodies.
Appropriation
/əˌproʊpriˈeɪʃən/The act of setting aside money by formal legislative authority for a specific public purpose — in the budget context, the Appropriation Bill authorises the government to withdraw sums from the Consolidated Fund of India for the expenditure approved by Parliament through the Demands for Grants.
Appropriation
/əˌproʊ.priˈeɪ.ʃən/The formal legislative authorisation to withdraw money from the Consolidated Fund of India for specified purposes and amounts as approved by Parliament through an Appropriation Bill.
Appropriation Bill
/əˌproʊpriˈeɪʃən bɪl/A bill introduced in Lok Sabha after Demands for Grants have been voted upon, which — when passed as the Appropriation Act — authorises the government to withdraw specified sums from the Consolidated Fund of India for the purposes approved by Parliament.
Aptitude
/ˈæp.tɪ.tjuːd/An innate or natural ability or talent that enables a person to learn or acquire a particular skill with relative ease.
Armistice
/ˈɑːmɪstɪs/A formal agreement between warring parties to cease hostilities, often as a prelude to peace negotiations — the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ended fighting on the Western Front of World War I.
Asceticism
/əˈsɛtɪsɪzəm/The practice of severe self-discipline and abstention from all forms of physical pleasure or indulgence, undertaken as a spiritual discipline to achieve liberation or higher consciousness.
Assimilation
/əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃən/In sociology, the process by which individuals or groups of differing cultural heritage adopt the habits, attitudes, and way of life of a dominant culture, gradually merging into it.
Asthenosphere
/æsˈθɛnəsfɪər/The semi-molten, ductile layer of Earth's upper mantle lying beneath the lithosphere, approximately 100–300 km deep, on which the rigid tectonic plates float and move — its partial melting and convection currents provide the driving force for plate tectonics.
Asthenosphere
/æsˈθɛnəsfɪə/The mechanically weak, partially molten layer of the Earth's upper mantle lying beneath the lithosphere, extending from roughly 100 to 700 km depth, where convection currents drive the movement of tectonic plates.
Atrocity
/əˈtrɒsɪti/An extremely cruel, violent, or degrading act committed against a person; in the Indian legal context, specifically refers to offences committed against members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as defined under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
Atrocity
/əˈtrɒsɪti/In the context of Indian law, a term defined under the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 — covering 22 offences (expanded to 47 by the 2015 Amendment) committed against SC/ST members by non-SC/ST persons, including assault, sexual violence, forcing to eat inedible matter, social and economic boycott, and wrongful occupation of land.
Autarky
/ˈɔːtɑːki/A policy of national economic self-sufficiency aimed at reducing or eliminating dependence on foreign imports; India pursued a degree of autarky through import substitution industrialisation and restrictive trade policies from the 1950s until the 1991 liberalisation reforms.
Authoritarian
/ɔːˌθɒrɪˈtɛəriən/Favouring or enforcing strict obedience to authority at the expense of personal freedom and democratic participation.
Autonomous
/ɔːˈtɒnəməs/Having the power or right of self-governance, free from external control — used to describe constitutional bodies that function independently of the executive.
Ayagar
/ˈɑːjəɡɑːr/A system of village administration in the Vijayanagara Empire comprising twelve hereditary functionaries — including the headman, accountant, watchman, and various artisans — who collectively managed local governance in exchange for tax-free land grants.
B
Backward Classes
/ˈbækwəd ˈklɑːsɪz/A constitutional category covering socially and educationally disadvantaged communities other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, identified by the President under Article 340 based on the recommendations of Backward Classes Commissions; the primary criteria for identification have shifted from caste alone to social backwardness evidenced through caste, poverty, and lack of representation.
Ballistic
/bəˈlɪs.tɪk/Relating to projectiles that move under their own momentum, gravity, and aerodynamic drag after an initial powered phase, following a curved trajectory without sustained propulsion.
Bandobast
/bʌndoˈbʌst/A settlement or arrangement, particularly referring to Raja Todar Mal's systematic revenue settlement (Zabti/Dahsala) under Akbar, which standardised land measurement, crop assessment, and cash-based revenue demand across the Mughal heartland.
Bas-relief
/ˌbɑːrɪˈliːf/A type of sculpture in which figures project only slightly from the surrounding flat surface, remaining largely attached to the background wall or panel.
Bauxite
/ˈbɔːksaɪt/A reddish-brown to white clay-like sedimentary rock that is the principal ore of aluminium, consisting primarily of hydrated aluminium oxides and hydroxides with various impurities including iron, silica, and titania.
Benami
/beˈnɑː.mi/A transaction in which property is held or transferred in the name of one person (the *benamidar*) while the consideration is paid by another person (the beneficial owner), typically to conceal the true ownership of assets or evade taxation.
Benchmarking
/ˈbentʃˌmɑːkɪŋ/The process of measuring an organisation's policies, programmes, products, or services against recognised standards or best practices — used in public governance to evaluate performance, identify gaps, and set improvement targets.
Beneficiary
/ˌbɛnɪˈfɪʃiˌɛri/A person or household that directly receives the benefits — financial transfers, goods, or services — of a government welfare scheme or social programme.
Betz Limit
/bɛts ˈlɪmɪt/The theoretical maximum fraction of kinetic energy that can be extracted from wind by a wind turbine, equal to 16/27 or approximately 59.3% — derived by German physicist Albert Betz in 1919 from the principles of conservation of mass and momentum, assuming an ideal frictionless rotor in an open flow.
Bicameral
/baɪˈkæm.ər.əl/Describing a legislature that consists of two separate chambers or houses; at the state level in India, a bicameral legislature comprises the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) and the Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council).
Bilateral
/ˌbaɪˈlæt.ər.əl/Involving or affecting two parties or sides, especially two nations, in a mutual agreement or negotiation.
Biodegradable
/ˌbaɪ.əʊ.dɪˈɡɹeɪ.də.bəl/Capable of being decomposed by the action of living organisms, especially bacteria and fungi, into natural substances such as water, carbon dioxide, and organic matter.
Biodiversity
/ˌbaɪəʊdaɪˈvɜːsɪti/The variety and variability of all forms of life — including genetic diversity within species, species diversity within ecosystems, and ecosystem diversity across landscapes — within a given region or across the entire planet.
Biofertiliser
/ˌbaɪoʊˈfɜːrtɪˌlaɪzər/A substance containing living micro-organisms — such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria (*Rhizobium*) or phosphate-solubilising fungi — that, when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, enhances nutrient availability and promotes plant growth.
Biomass
/ˈbaɪəʊˌmæs/The total dry weight of all living organisms, or of a specified group of organisms, present in a given area or at a particular trophic level at a specific point in time.
Biopesticide
/ˌbaɪoʊˈpɛstɪˌsaɪd/A pest-control agent derived from natural biological sources — such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or plant extracts — used as an environmentally safer alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides.
Bioprinting
/ˈbaɪoʊˌprɪntɪŋ/A specialised form of 3D printing that uses living cells, biomaterials (bioinks), and growth factors to fabricate biological structures layer by layer — including tissues, organs, and organ models for drug testing and transplantation research.
Bloc
/blɒk/ (RP), /blɑːk/ (GA)A group of countries or political parties that have formed an alliance to act together in pursuit of shared strategic, economic, or ideological interests.
Blockchain
/ˈblɒkˌtʃeɪn/A decentralised, distributed digital ledger that records transactions across multiple computers in a tamper-proof and transparent manner, secured through cryptographic hashing.
Bolshevik
/ˈbɒlʃəvɪk/A member of the radical wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, which seized power in the October Revolution of 1917 and established the world's first communist state.
Bourgeoisie
/ˌbʊəʒ.wɑːˈziː/The social class that owns the means of production in a capitalist society; more broadly, the urban middle class of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who rose to economic and political prominence during the Industrial Revolution.
Boycott
/ˈbɔɪkɒt/A concerted refusal to buy, use, or deal with a person, organisation, or product as a form of protest, intended to inflict economic or social pressure.
Boycott
/ˈbɔɪkɒt/The concerted refusal to buy, use, or deal with a person, organisation, or country's products as a form of protest or coercion; in the Indian freedom struggle, the organised rejection of British-manufactured goods to weaken colonial economic control.
Bureaucracy
/bjʊəˈrɒk.rə.si/A system of administration characterised by hierarchical authority, division of labour, formal rules and procedures, and salaried officials, designed to manage large-scale organisational tasks in a routine and predictable manner.
C
Cadre
/ˈkɑːdreɪ/ (US) or /ˈkɑːdə/ (UK)A small, trained core group of personnel who form the nucleus of a larger organisation, particularly a political or military movement.
Calligraphy
/kəˈlɪɡrəfi/The art of beautiful, decorative handwriting, practised extensively in Indo-Islamic culture for Quranic inscriptions, royal decrees, and architectural ornamentation on monuments such as the Taj Mahal.
Capacitor
/kəˈpæsɪtər/A passive electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field between two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material.
Capex Multiplier
/ˈkæpɛks ˈmʌltɪplaɪər/The ratio by which a unit of public capital expenditure increases total GDP (output) through direct and indirect effects. Capital expenditure — on infrastructure like roads, railways, ports, and power — has a higher multiplier than revenue expenditure because it enhances productivity, attracts private investment (crowding in), and creates durable assets.
Captive Power
/ˈkæptɪv ˈpaʊər/Electricity generated by an industrial or commercial facility for its own consumption rather than for sale to the grid, ensuring a reliable and uninterrupted power supply.
Carbon Credit
/ˈkɑːr.bən ˈkred.ɪt/A tradable permit or certificate representing the right to emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or its equivalent, used within market-based mechanisms to incentivise greenhouse gas emission reductions.
Carrying Capacity
/ˈkærɪɪŋ kəˈpæsɪti/The maximum number of tourists or visitors that a destination can sustainably accommodate without causing unacceptable deterioration of the physical environment, the visitor experience, or the socio-cultural fabric of the host community.
Cartel
/kɑːˈtɛl/A formal or informal agreement between competing enterprises to coordinate their behaviour in the market — typically involving price-fixing, bid rigging, output restriction, or market allocation — with the aim of reducing competition and increasing profits at the expense of consumers. Cartels are treated as the most serious form of anti-competitive conduct and attract the highest penalties under competition law.
Categorical Imperative
/ˌkæt.ɪˈɡɒr.ɪ.kəl ɪmˈper.ə.tɪv/The central principle of Immanuel Kant's deontological ethics, formulated as an unconditional moral command that requires one to act only according to maxims that could be willed as universal laws, and to treat humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end.
Cathode
/ˈkæθoʊd/The electrode at which **reduction** (gain of electrons) occurs in an electrochemical cell — in a galvanic cell (battery), the cathode is the positive terminal; in an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the negative terminal; in both cases, cations (positive ions) migrate toward the cathode.
Ceasefire
/ˈsiːsfaɪə/A temporary or permanent cessation of fighting agreed upon by opposing forces, often as a precursor to formal peace negotiations; China declared a unilateral ceasefire on 19 November 1962 during the Sino-Indian War, and UN-mandated ceasefires ended the 1965 Indo-Pak War.
Censorship
/ˈsɛnsəʃɪp/The suppression or prohibition of speech, public communication, or other information by a governing authority on the grounds that such material is objectionable or dangerous.
Censorship
/ˈsɛnsərʃɪp/The suppression or restriction of speech, publication, or other forms of expression by a government, regulatory body, or institution, typically on grounds of national security, public order, morality, or political control.
Certiorari
/ˌsɜːr.ʃi.əˈrɛər.aɪ/A writ issued by a superior court to a lower court or tribunal directing it to transmit the record of a case for review, typically to quash an order passed without jurisdiction or in violation of natural justice principles.
Cess
/sɛs/A tax levied over and above the base tax liability, earmarked for a specific purpose such as education or health, and not shared with state governments through the Finance Commission's devolution formula.
CGST
/siː-dʒiː-ɛs-tiː/Central Goods and Services Tax — the central government's share of tax on intra-state supplies
Chain Reaction
/tʃeɪn riˈækʃən/A self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission events in which the neutrons released by one fission event cause additional fissions in nearby fissile nuclei, releasing more neutrons and energy in an exponentially growing cascade — controlled in a nuclear reactor (steady chain reaction) or uncontrolled in a nuclear weapon (supercritical chain reaction).
Chaitya
/ˈtʃaɪtjə/A Buddhist prayer hall or shrine, typically rock-cut, with a vaulted roof, a stupa at the apsidal end, and a long nave flanked by pillars for congregational worship.
Charter
/ˈtʃɑːrtər/A formal document issued by a sovereign authority granting specific rights, privileges, or powers to an individual, corporation, or colony, such as the Royal Charter of 1600 that created the East India Company.
Chauth
/tʃaʊθ/An annual levy of one-fourth (25%) of the revenue of neighbouring territories claimed by the Maratha Empire as protection money in exchange for not raiding those lands.
Chokepoint
/ˈtʃoʊkˌpɔɪnt/A narrow strategic waterway — a strait, canal, or channel — through which a large volume of maritime traffic must pass, creating a bottleneck that is vulnerable to disruption by conflict, piracy, natural disaster, or deliberate blockade, with potentially catastrophic consequences for global trade and energy supply.
Citadel
/ˈsɪtədəl/A fortified area situated on elevated ground within or near a city, serving as a last refuge in times of siege and often housing administrative or ceremonial structures.
Civil Disobedience
/ˈsɪvəl ˌdɪsəˈbiːdiəns/The deliberate, non-violent refusal to obey unjust laws or governmental demands as a collective means of forcing political concessions, most notably employed by Gandhi to challenge British colonial authority in India.
Clandestine
/klænˈdɛstɪn/Kept secret or done in concealment, especially for purposes of subversion or evasion of authority.
Cobot
/ˈkoʊbɒt/A collaborative robot engineered to work safely alongside human operators in a shared workspace, equipped with force-limiting sensors, soft grippers, and real-time collision avoidance, used in tasks requiring both human dexterity and robotic precision.
Cognition
/kɒɡˈnɪʃ.ən/The mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses, encompassing activities such as perception, reasoning, memory, and judgement.
Coinage
/ˈkɔɪnɪdʒ/The system or process of minting metal money, or the coins collectively produced and circulated within an economy.
Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
/ˈkɒm.ən bʌt ˌdɪf.ərˈen.ʃi.eɪ.tɪd rɪˌspɒn.sɪˈbɪl.ɪ.tiz/A foundational principle of international environmental law, enshrined in the UNFCCC and the Rio Declaration (1992), which holds that while all states share a common responsibility to address global environmental degradation, the extent of their obligations differs based on their historical contribution to the problem and their economic and technological capacity to address it.
Communal
/ˈkɒmjʊnəl/In the Indian political context, relating to or based on religious community identity, particularly the antagonism between Hindu and Muslim communities that shaped the politics of the independence movement and Partition.
Communal Award
/kəˈmjuːnəl əˈwɔːd/A decision announced on 16 August 1932 by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald that extended separate electorates to the Depressed Classes (Dalits) and other minorities for representation in provincial legislatures, triggering Gandhi's fast unto death and the subsequent Poona Pact.
Communalism
/ˈkɒmjʊnəlɪzəm/A political ideology that elevates religious community identity over national identity, often mobilising people along religious lines and leading to inter-community tensions or violence.
Communiqué
/kəˈmjuːnɪˌkeɪ/An official statement or press release issued after a diplomatic meeting, conference, or summit, summarising the agreed positions and decisions of the participants.
Compassion
/kəmˈpæʃ.ən/A deep awareness of and sympathy for the suffering of others, coupled with a desire to alleviate that suffering.
Compliance
/kəmˈplaɪ.əns/The act of conforming to a rule, standard, regulation, or law, particularly in the context of industries and organisations adhering to environmental or legal requirements.
Composting
/ˈkɒm.pɒs.tɪŋ/ (BrE) · /ˈkɑːm.poʊs.tɪŋ/ (AmE)The controlled biological process of decomposing organic matter — such as food scraps, yard waste, and agricultural residues — by microorganisms under aerobic conditions to produce nutrient-rich humus used as a soil amendment.
Conduction
/kənˈdʌkʃən/The transfer of heat or electricity through a substance by direct molecular contact, without bulk movement of the material itself.
Conscience
/ˈkɒn.ʃəns/The inner sense of moral awareness that guides a person's judgement of the rightness or wrongness of their own conduct, intentions, and character, accompanied by a feeling of obligation to act rightly.
Consolidated Fund
/kənˈsɒlɪdeɪtɪd fʌnd/The principal government account established under Article 266 of the Indian Constitution into which all revenues received, loans raised, and loan repayments flow, and from which no money may be withdrawn except with Parliamentary authorisation.
Consolidated Fund of India
/kənˈsɒlɪdeɪtɪd fʌnd əv ˈɪndiə/The principal account of the Government of India, established under Article 266(1) of the Constitution, into which all revenues received by the Union Government, all loans raised by it, and all loan repayment receipts are credited — and from which no moneys shall be withdrawn except in accordance with law (i.e., an Appropriation Act passed by Parliament).
Constituent Assembly
/kənˌstɪtʃuənt əˈsɛmbli/A body of elected representatives empowered to draft or adopt a constitution for a country.
Contempt
/kənˈtɛmpt/The offence of being disobedient to or disrespectful towards a court of law; under Article 129, the Supreme Court (and under Article 215, every High Court) has the power to punish for contempt of itself, covering both civil contempt (wilful disobedience of a court order) and criminal contempt (acts that scandalise or lower the authority of the court).
Contingency
/kənˈtɪn.dʒən.si/A future event or circumstance that is possible but cannot be predicted with certainty, or a provision made in advance for such an event, especially in disaster planning where contingency plans outline actions to be taken if specific emergency scenarios arise.
Contingency Fund of India
/kənˈtɪndʒənsi fʌnd əv ˈɪndiə/A fund established under Article 267 of the Constitution, held at the disposal of the President of India, to enable advances to the executive government for meeting unforeseen expenditure pending authorisation by Parliament through a Supplementary Demand for Grants.
Conurbation
/ˌkɒnɜːˈbeɪʃən/An extensive, continuously built-up urban area formed by the expansion and merging of several neighbouring cities or towns that retain their separate identities.
Convection
/kənˈvɛkʃən/The transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) by the bulk movement of matter, in which warmer, less dense material rises and cooler, denser material sinks.
Cooperative
/koʊˈɒpərətɪv/An autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, or cultural needs through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise — as in dairy cooperatives (Amul model) that empowered Indian milk producers.
Coparcenary
/koʊˈpɑːrsənəri/A form of joint ownership of ancestral property in Hindu law, where all members (coparceners) have an equal, undivided share by birth; the 2005 amendment to the Hindu Succession Act made daughters equal coparceners in the joint Hindu family property.
Corridor
/ˈkɔːr.ɪ.dɔːr/A strip of habitat connecting two or more larger patches of habitat, enabling wildlife to move safely between them for migration, foraging, and genetic exchange.
Corruption
/kəˈrʌpʃən/The abuse of entrusted power for private gain — encompassing bribery, extortion, fraud, embezzlement, nepotism, cronyism, conflict of interest, and influence peddling by public officials or private actors.
Counterfeit
/ˈkaʊn.tə.fɪt/Made in exact imitation of something genuine with the intent to deceive or defraud, especially referring to currency, goods, or documents produced illegally to pass as authentic.
Creamy Layer
/ˈkriːmi ˈleɪər/A socially and economically advanced sub-section within Other Backward Classes (OBCs) who are excluded from reservation benefits in Central Government posts and Central educational institutions, on the premise that they no longer require affirmative action — currently defined as individuals whose parents' income exceeds ₹8 lakh per annum (revised in 2017), or whose parents are constitutional functionaries, Class I/II officers, or hold senior military ranks.
CRISPR
/ˈkrɪs.pər/An acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, a gene-editing technology derived from a bacterial defence system that enables precise modification of DNA sequences in living organisms.
Critical Infrastructure
/ˈkrɪtɪkl ˈɪnfrəstrʌktʃə/The physical and cyber systems, assets, and networks so essential to a nation that their incapacitation or destruction would have a debilitating effect on national security, economic stability, public health, or public safety -- includes power grids, telecom networks, financial systems, water supply, transport, and defence installations.
Cronyism
/ˈkrəʊ.ni.ɪ.zəm/The practice of appointing or favouring close friends and associates to positions of authority or advantage without regard for their qualifications, especially in politics and governance.
Crowding Out
/ˈkraʊdɪŋ aʊt/The economic phenomenon where increased government borrowing (driven by high fiscal deficit) raises interest rates in the economy, making borrowing more expensive for private firms and households, thereby reducing (crowding out) private investment and consumption.
Cryogenic
/ˌkraɪəˈdʒɛnɪk/Relating to the production and use of extremely low temperatures, typically below -150 degrees Celsius (-238 degrees Fahrenheit), at which gases such as hydrogen and oxygen are liquefied for use as rocket propellants.
Cultural Diplomacy
/ˈkʌl.tʃər.əl dɪˈpləʊ.mə.si/A subset of public diplomacy in which a government deliberately employs its cultural assets — art, music, cinema, literature, language, cuisine, sport, heritage, and educational exchanges — to foster mutual understanding, build relationships, and advance foreign policy objectives with both governments and publics of other nations.
Cultural Revolution
/ˈkʌltʃərəl ˌrɛvəˈluːʃən/The political campaign launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 to purge "capitalist roaders" and "revisionists" from the Chinese Communist Party and reassert Maoist ideology through mass mobilisation of youth (Red Guards), destruction of traditional culture, and violent persecution of intellectuals, party officials, and perceived class enemies — it lasted until Mao's death in 1976 and caused an estimated 500,000 to 2 million deaths.
Curfew
/ˈkɜːfjuː/A governmental order restricting the movement of persons in public places during specified hours, typically imposed during emergencies or periods of civil unrest to maintain public order.
Cut Motion
/kʌt ˈmoʊʃən/A motion moved by a member of Parliament (opposition or otherwise) in Lok Sabha to reduce the amount of a Demand for Grant. There are three types: (1) **Policy Cut Motion** — reduces the demand to Re. 1, expressing disapproval of the policy; (2) **Economy Cut Motion** — seeks a specific reduction in the demand on grounds of economy; (3) **Token Cut Motion** — seeks a nominal reduction of Rs. 100 to ventilate a specific grievance.
Cyclone
/ˈsaɪkləʊn/A large-scale atmospheric system of winds rotating around a centre of low pressure — anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
D
Debenture
/dɪˈbɛn.tʃər/A long-term debt instrument issued by a company or government, bearing a fixed rate of interest and usually unsecured, that acknowledges a debt owed to the holder.
Debt Bondage
/dɛt ˈbɒndɪdʒ/A form of forced labour in which a person is compelled to work to repay a debt, and the terms and conditions of the debt are such that the person can never fully repay it -- the debt may be inherited across generations, and the value of work performed far exceeds the original debt. It is the most common form of modern slavery globally.
Debt-Trap Diplomacy
/dɛt træp dɪˈploʊməsi/A term describing the alleged strategy of extending excessive loans to developing countries for infrastructure projects under unfavourable terms, with the intention of leveraging the resulting debt to extract political concessions or strategic assets when the borrower cannot repay — most commonly used in criticism of China's Belt and Road Initiative.
Decadence
/ˈdɛkədəns/A process or period of moral, cultural, or institutional decline and deterioration, often marked by excessive luxury and self-indulgence among the ruling class.
Decarbonisation
/diːˌkɑːbənaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process of reducing and ultimately eliminating carbon dioxide emissions from a country's economy, energy systems, and industrial processes to mitigate climate change.
Decomposer
/ˌdiːkəmˈpəʊzər/An organism — typically a bacterium or fungus — that breaks down dead organic matter into simpler inorganic substances, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Deepfake
/ˈdiːpfeɪk/Synthetic media -- typically video, audio, or images -- created using deep learning techniques (especially Generative Adversarial Networks and diffusion models) that realistically depict a person saying or doing something they never actually said or did, posing risks to democratic integrity, personal reputation, and information ecosystems.
Deepfake
/ˈdiːpˌfeɪk/A convincingly realistic but fabricated image, video, or audio recording created using artificial intelligence — particularly deep learning techniques — that superimposes one person's likeness onto another or generates entirely synthetic media.
Defection
/dɪˈfɛkʃən/The act of an elected legislator abandoning allegiance to the political party on whose ticket they were elected — either by voluntarily giving up party membership, voting against the party whip, or abstaining from voting contrary to party directions — resulting in disqualification under the 10th Schedule of the Constitution.
Deflator
/dɪˈfleɪtər/A statistical tool used to convert nominal (current price) values to real (constant price) values by removing the effect of price changes. The GDP Deflator = (Nominal GDP / Real GDP) × 100. Unlike CPI or WPI, the GDP Deflator is an implicit index covering all goods and services produced in the economy, not a fixed basket.
Deindustrialisation
/diːˌɪndʌstriəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/The decline or destruction of a nation's industrial capacity, particularly the collapse of indigenous manufacturing under the pressure of foreign competition or colonial economic policies.
Demographic Dividend
/ˌdɛməˈɡræfɪk ˈdɪvɪdɛnd/The economic growth potential that arises when a country's working-age population (15–64 years) is significantly larger than its dependent population (children and elderly), resulting in higher per-capita productivity, savings, and investment — provided the workforce is educated, skilled, and employed.
Demographic Transition
/ˌdɛməˈɡræfɪk trænˈzɪʃən/The shift in population dynamics from a pre-industrial regime of high birth rates and high death rates to a post-industrial regime of low birth rates and low death rates, typically passing through an intermediate phase of rapid population growth when death rates fall before birth rates — first described by Warren Thompson in 1929 and later refined by Frank Notestein in 1945.
Demography
/dɪˈmɒɡɹəfi/The statistical study of human populations, including their size, structure, distribution, and changes over time through births, deaths, and migration.
Deontology
/ˌdiː.ɒnˈtɒl.ə.dʒi/A normative ethical theory holding that the morality of an action is determined by whether it conforms to a set of rules or duties, rather than by the consequences of that action.
Depreciation
/dɪˌpriːʃiˈeɪʃən/The decline in the value of a capital asset (machinery, equipment, buildings) over time due to wear and tear, obsolescence, or usage — also called "consumption of fixed capital" in national income accounting. Subtracting depreciation from gross measures gives net measures (GDP − Depreciation = NDP; GNP − Depreciation = NNP).
Desertification
/dɪˌzɜː.tɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/The process by which fertile or semi-arid land becomes increasingly arid and unproductive, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, overgrazing, or inappropriate agricultural practices, leading to the loss of topsoil and vegetation cover.
Desertification
/dɪˌzɜːrtɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/The degradation of land in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture, and urbanisation -- leading to the loss of biological productivity and the impoverishment of terrestrial ecosystems, distinct from natural desert expansion.
Detente
/deɪˈtɑːnt/The relaxation of strained relations between nations, especially through diplomatic negotiations, treaties, and trade agreements; India practised a form of detente with both Cold War blocs through its non-alignment policy while engaging with the USSR and the USA based on its own interests.
Deterrence
/dɪˈtɛrəns/The strategy of discouraging an adversary from taking hostile action by maintaining credible military capability and the demonstrated willingness to use it, thereby raising the cost of aggression beyond any potential gain.
Devolution
/ˌdevəˈluːʃən/The transfer of legislative, executive, and financial powers from a central authority to subnational units (states or local bodies), enabling them to make decisions autonomously within a defined domain without requiring central government approval for each action.
Devolution
/ˌdiːvəˈluːʃən/The transfer of powers, functions, and resources from a central or state government to locally elected bodies such as Panchayats and Municipalities.
Devotion
/dɪˈvəʊʃən/Profound love, loyalty, and dedication to a deity or spiritual practice, especially the intensely personal and emotional attachment between a devotee and God that forms the core of the Bhakti tradition.
Dhamma
/ˈdɑːmə/The Pali form of the Sanskrit word dharma, referring in Ashoka's context to a moral code of righteous conduct, tolerance, non-violence, and respect for all living beings.
Dialect
/ˈdaɪəlɛkt/A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language; India's 2011 Census recorded 19,500 mother tongues, many of which are dialects of the 22 Scheduled Languages.
Diarchy
/ˈdaɪɑːki/A form of government in which power is shared between two authorities; in British India, the system introduced by the Government of India Act 1919 that divided provincial subjects into "reserved" (under the Governor) and "transferred" (under elected Indian ministers).
Diaspora
/daɪˈæspərə/A scattered population whose origin lies in a separate geographic locale — specifically, people who have migrated from their ancestral homeland and maintain cultural, religious, or national identity in their country of residence; India has one of the world's largest diasporas, with approximately 32 million people of Indian origin living abroad.
Diaspora
/daɪˈæs.pər.ə/A scattered population whose origin lies in a different geographic locale; in the Indian context, it refers to the approximately 35.4 million people of Indian origin living outside India — including NRIs (Indian citizens abroad) and PIOs/OCIs (foreign citizens of Indian descent).
Diffraction
/dɪˈfrækʃən/The spreading and bending of waves as they pass through an aperture or around the edge of an obstacle, without any change in their energy.
Digital Twin
/ˈdɪdʒɪtəl twɪn/A continuously updated virtual replica of a physical asset, system, or process that integrates real-time data from IoT sensors to simulate performance, predict failures, and optimise operations without disrupting actual production.
Digitisation
/ˌdɪdʒɪtaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process of converting information, services, or records into a digital format that can be stored, processed, and transmitted electronically.
Dilemma
/dɪˈlem.ə/A situation requiring a choice between two or more alternatives that appear equally undesirable or mutually exclusive, often involving a conflict between competing ethical values.
Diode
/ˈdaɪ.oʊd/A two-terminal electronic component that allows electric current to flow in one direction only, used chiefly as a rectifier to convert alternating current to direct current.
Diplomacy
/dɪˈploʊ.mə.si/The art and practice of conducting negotiations and managing relations between nations through dialogue, treaties, and agreements.
Dirigisme
/ˌdɪrɪˈʒiːzəm/An economic policy in which the state takes a strong, directive role in guiding and shaping the economy through regulation, public sector enterprises, and centralised planning, rather than relying solely on market forces; India's economic model from 1947 to 1991 is often characterised as dirigiste.
Disclosure
/dɪsˈkloʊʒər/The act of making previously confidential or private information available to the public or to relevant stakeholders, particularly financial, operational, or governance-related information by corporations or public authorities.
Discretionary
/dɪˈskrɛʃ.ən.ər.i/Relating to powers exercised on the basis of personal judgment rather than on binding ministerial advice; under Article 163(2), the Governor may act in his discretion in certain constitutionally specified situations.
Disguised Unemployment
/dɪsˈɡaɪzd ˌʌnɪmˈplɔɪmənt/A situation in which more workers are employed in a sector than are actually needed, so that the marginal productivity of the surplus workers is effectively zero.
Disinformation
/dɪsˌɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/False or misleading information that is deliberately created and disseminated with the intent to deceive, manipulate public opinion, or cause harm — distinct from misinformation, which is spread without deliberate intent.
Disinvestment
/ˌdɪs.ɪnˈvest.mənt/The action of a government selling or liquidating its equity stake in public sector undertakings, either partially (minority stake sale) or fully (strategic disinvestment), to raise revenue or improve efficiency.
Disinvestment
/ˌdɪsɪnˈvɛstmənt/The action of the government selling or liquidating its equity stake in a public sector enterprise, either partially (minority stake sale, OFS, IPO) or fully (strategic disinvestment with transfer of management control) — managed by the Department of Investment and Public Asset Management (DIPAM) under the Ministry of Finance.
Dissolution
/ˌdɪs.əˈluː.ʃən/The formal termination of the Lok Sabha (or a State Legislative Assembly), ending the life of that House and requiring fresh general elections for its reconstitution.
Dominion
/dəˈmɪnjən/A self-governing territory within the British Empire that acknowledged the Crown as head of state while exercising internal sovereignty.
Ductile
/ˈdʌktaɪl/Capable of being drawn out into thin wire by mechanical force without breaking — a property exhibited by metals such as gold, silver, and copper.
Dumping
/ˈdʌmpɪŋ/The practice of exporting a product at a price lower than its normal value in the domestic market or below its cost of production, which the WTO permits countries to counter through anti-dumping duties under GATT Article VI.
Dyarchy
/ˈdaɪ.ɑːr.ki/A system of dual government introduced in British Indian provinces by the Government of India Act 1919, under which certain subjects (like education and health) were transferred to elected Indian ministers, while key subjects (like finance and law and order) remained "reserved" under the appointed British Governor and his executive council.
Dyarchy
/ˈdaɪɑːki/A variant spelling of diarchy, commonly used in the context of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, referring to the dual system of governance in British Indian provinces where certain subjects were administered by elected Indian ministers and others by the British-appointed Governor.
Dynasty
/ˈdɪnəsti/A succession of rulers from the same family who maintain power across generations.
E
E-way Bill
/iː-weɪ bɪl/Electronic Way Bill — a mandatory digital document for transporting goods valued above Rs 50,000
Economic Corridor
/ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk ˈkɒrɪdɔːr/A linear zone connecting major economic nodes (cities, ports, industrial hubs) through integrated infrastructure — roads, railways, pipelines, digital networks, and logistics facilities — designed to reduce trade costs, stimulate economic development along the route, and strengthen geopolitical connectivity between nations.
Economic Survey
/ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk ˈsɜːveɪ/An annual report prepared by the Ministry of Finance (Economic Division) under the Chief Economic Adviser (CEA), tabled in Parliament the day before the Union Budget, providing a comprehensive review of the Indian economy's performance over the preceding year and a forward-looking economic assessment.
Ecosystem
/ˈiːkəʊˌsɪstəm/A functional unit of nature in which living organisms (biotic community) interact with one another and with their physical environment (abiotic factors) through energy flow and nutrient cycling.
Ecotourism
/ˌiːkəʊˈtʊərɪzəm/Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education — a form of tourism that minimises environmental impact while providing economic benefits to local communities and fostering environmental awareness.
Edict
/ˈiːdɪkt/An official order or proclamation issued by a person in authority, especially a sovereign ruler.
Effluent
/ˈɛf.lu.ənt/Liquid waste or sewage discharged from a factory, industrial plant, or sewage treatment facility into a water body or the environment.
Electrolysis
/ɪˌlɛkˈtrɒlɪsɪs/The process of using an electric current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction — specifically, the decomposition of an electrolyte (ionic compound in molten or aqueous form) by passing direct current through it, causing positive ions (cations) to migrate to the cathode and negative ions (anions) to migrate to the anode, where they undergo reduction and oxidation respectively.
Electronegativity
/ɪˌlɛktroʊˌnɛɡəˈtɪvɪti/A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract shared electrons towards itself when forming a chemical bond, with fluorine having the highest value on the Pauling scale.
Empathy
/ˈɛmpəθi/The ability to understand and share the feelings, thoughts, and emotional states of another person, enabling one to perceive situations from their perspective.
Empowerment
/ɪmˈpaʊ.ər.mənt/The process of gaining or granting power, authority, and agency to individuals or groups -- particularly marginalised communities -- enabling them to take control of their own lives and participate fully in social, economic, and political decision-making.
Encryption
/ɪnˈkrɪp.ʃən/The process of converting readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable format (ciphertext) using a key or algorithm, so that only authorised parties with the correct decryption key can access the original information.
Endemic
/ɛnˈdɛmɪk/A species that is native to and found exclusively within a particular, defined geographic area — such as an island, a mountain range, or a country — with no naturally occurring populations elsewhere in the world.
Endogamy
/ɛnˈdɒɡəmi/The custom or practice of marrying only within one's own social group, caste, clan, or tribe, as required by tradition or social norm.
Entrepreneur
/ˌɒn.tɹə.pɹəˈnɜː/ (BrE) · /ˌɑːn.tɹə.pɹəˈnɝː/ (AmE)A person who sets up and manages a business venture, assuming its financial risks in pursuit of profit.
Entropy
/ˈɛntrəpi/A measure of the amount of disorder or randomness in a thermodynamic system, indicating how much energy is unavailable to do useful work.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
/ɪnˌvaɪrənˈmɛntəl ˈɪmpækt əˌsɛsmənt/A systematic, interdisciplinary process to identify, predict, evaluate, and mitigate the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of a proposed development project before a decision on environmental clearance is made — serving as a preventive tool that integrates environmental considerations into the planning and decision-making process.
Epicentre
/ˈɛp.ɪˌsɛn.tər/The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus (hypocentre) of an earthquake, where seismic shaking is usually most intense and damage most severe.
Epigraphy
/ɪˈpɪɡrəfi/The study of ancient inscriptions carved or engraved on durable materials such as stone, metal, or clay, used to reconstruct historical events and administrative systems.
Equity
/ˈɛk.wɪ.ti/The ownership interest in a company represented by shares of stock, or more broadly, the residual value of an asset after deducting all liabilities associated with it.
Estuary
/ˈɛstjʊəri/A semi-enclosed coastal body of water with a free connection to the open sea, within which seawater is measurably diluted by freshwater from land drainage.
Eutrophication
/juːˌtrɒfɪˈkeɪʃən/The process by which a body of water becomes excessively enriched with nutrients -- primarily nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural runoff, sewage, and industrial discharge -- leading to dense algal blooms that block sunlight, and whose subsequent decomposition by bacteria depletes dissolved oxygen, creating hypoxic "dead zones" where aerobic marine life cannot survive.
Evacuation
/ɪˌvæk.juˈeɪ.ʃən/The organised removal or withdrawal of people from a place of danger — such as a flood zone, earthquake-affected area, or conflict zone — to a safer location as a life-saving disaster response measure.
Exile
/ˈɛɡzaɪl/The state of being forced to live away from one's own country, typically for political reasons; Subhas Chandra Bose spent years in exile from 1941 to 1945, operating from Germany and then Japanese-controlled Southeast Asia to organise the armed liberation of India.
Extremism
/ɪkˈstriːmɪzəm/The holding of radical political, religious, or ideological views that reject compromise and advocate for drastic, often violent, measures to achieve objectives.
Extremist
/ɪkˈstriːmɪst/In the context of the Indian national movement, a member of the assertive nationalist faction within the Indian National Congress (c. 1905-1919) who rejected moderate constitutional methods and advocated Swadeshi, Boycott, national education, and passive resistance to achieve Swaraj.
F
Factory
/ˈfæktəri/In colonial trade history, a fortified trading post or warehouse established by a European company in a foreign land, managed by a factor (commercial agent) who conducted business on behalf of the company.
Fallow
/ˈfæloʊ/Arable land that is ploughed and left unseeded for one or more growing seasons to allow the soil to recover fertility, retain moisture, and break pest and disease cycles.
Farman
/fərˈmɑːn/An irrevocable royal decree or mandate issued by a Mughal emperor, carrying the force of law and used for administrative orders, grants, and diplomatic communications.
Fascism
/ˈfæʃɪzəm/A far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology characterised by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy — first embodied by Mussolini's regime in Italy (1922--1943).
Feminism
/ˈfɛm.ɪ.nɪ.zəm/A social, political, and intellectual movement advocating for equal rights, opportunities, and treatment for women across all spheres of public and private life.
Fencing
/ˈfɛn.sɪŋ/The construction of physical barriers such as wire, steel, or concrete structures along a national border to prevent unauthorised crossing, smuggling, and infiltration.
Fiduciary
/fɪˈdjuːʃiˌɛri/ (RP), /fəˈduːʃiˌɛri/ (GA)Relating to a relationship of trust in which one party (the fiduciary) is legally and ethically obligated to act in the best interest of another, such as a trustee for a beneficiary or a public servant for citizens.
Finance Bill
/faɪˈnæns bɪl/The bill that gives effect to the government's financial proposals for the ensuing financial year — primarily containing all direct and indirect tax changes announced in the Budget speech. When passed as the Finance Act, it gives legal sanction to all taxation proposals.
Firewall
/ˈfaɪ.ər.wɔːl/A network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on configurable security rules, acting as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks.
Fiscal Deficit
/ˈfɪs.kəl ˈdef.ɪ.sɪt/The difference between a government's total expenditure and its total receipts (excluding borrowings), indicating the extent to which the government must borrow to finance its spending.
Fiscal Deficit
/ˈfɪskəl ˈdɛfɪsɪt/The excess of total government expenditure over total receipts excluding borrowings; it represents the government's net borrowing requirement for the year. Formula: **Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure − (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Capital Receipts)**. It is financed through market borrowings (dated government securities and Treasury Bills), small savings collections, provident fund balances, and external borrowings.
Fiscal Devolution
/ˈfɪskəl ˌdevəˈluːʃən/The transfer of financial resources and revenue-raising powers to lower levels of government — encompassing tax-sharing, grants-in-aid, and the authority to levy local taxes — as recommended by State Finance Commissions (Article 243-I) and the Union Finance Commission (Article 280).
Fission
/ˈfɪʃ.ən/The splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.
Forex Reserves
/ˈfɒrɛks rɪˈzɜːvz/Assets held by a central bank in foreign currencies, gold, SDRs, and the IMF reserve position, used to back the domestic currency, settle international payments, and intervene in exchange rate markets.
Fragmentation
/ˌfræɡmənˈteɪʃən/The process by which a unified political entity breaks apart into smaller, often competing, independent units or regions.
FRBM Act
/ɛf ɑːr biː ɛm ækt/The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 — India's primary legislation for fiscal discipline, requiring the Central Government to maintain prudent fiscal management, present specific fiscal policy statements to Parliament, and work toward achieving defined deficit and debt targets.
Fresco
/ˈfrɛskəʊ/A technique of mural painting in which pigments are applied to plaster — either wet (*buon fresco*) so that the colours bond chemically with the wall, or dry (*fresco secco*) on lime-washed plaster.
Fusion
/ˈfjuː.ʒən/A nuclear reaction in which two or more light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process.
G
Galvanic Cell
/ɡælˈvænɪk sɛl/An electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy — consisting of two half-cells, each containing an electrode immersed in an electrolyte, connected by a salt bridge (for ion flow) and an external circuit (for electron flow from anode to cathode).
Gandhian
/ˈɡɑːn.di.ən/Of or relating to the ideas and philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, especially his principles of non-violence, village self-sufficiency, and decentralised governance.
Gazette
/ɡəˈzɛt/An official journal or newspaper, especially one published by a government containing legal notices, appointments, and public announcements; in colonial India, the earliest newspapers were often styled as gazettes.
Gender Budget Statement
/ˈdʒɛndər ˈbʌdʒɪt ˈsteɪtmənt/A statement presented as part of the Union Budget that disaggregates government expenditure into funds specifically targeted at women and girls, enabling tracking of gender-responsive public spending. It does not constitute a separate budget but a structured accountability document showing allocations from existing schemes that directly or indirectly benefit women.
Genome
/ˈdʒiː.nəʊm/The complete set of genetic material (DNA or, in some viruses, RNA) present in a cell or organism, containing all the information needed for that organism's development and function.
Gentrification
/ˌdʒɛntrɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/The process by which increased investment and influx of wealthier residents into a deteriorating urban neighbourhood drives up property values and rents, often displacing the original lower-income inhabitants.
Geostationary
/ˌdʒiːoʊˈsteɪʃənɛri/Describing a circular orbit approximately 35,786 km above the Earth's equator, where a satellite's orbital period matches the Earth's rotation, causing it to appear stationary relative to a fixed point on the ground.
Gharana
/ɡəˈrɑːnɑː/A lineage-based school or tradition in Hindustani classical music and dance, defined by a distinct style of performance, specific techniques, and a repertoire passed down through generations of a family or master-disciple chain (guru-shishya parampara).
Gini Coefficient
/ˈdʒiːni ˌkoʊɪˈfɪʃənt/A statistical measure of income or wealth inequality within a population, expressed on a scale from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).
Glasnost
/ˈɡlæznɒst/The policy of openness and transparency in government institutions and public discourse, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev alongside perestroika in the mid-1980s, which permitted open debate, relaxed censorship, and allowed criticism of the Soviet system for the first time.
Global Commons
/ˈɡləʊ.bəl ˈkɒm.ənz/Resource domains that lie outside the political jurisdiction of any single nation-state and are shared by all humanity — including the high seas, Antarctica, outer space, and the atmosphere — whose governance requires multilateral cooperation to prevent overexploitation (the "tragedy of the commons").
Globalisation
/ˌɡləʊbəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process by which businesses, economies, and cultures become increasingly interconnected and interdependent on an international scale through trade, investment, technology, and the movement of people.
Gopuram
/ˈɡoʊpʊrəm/A monumental, ornately decorated gateway tower at the entrance of a Hindu temple in the Dravidian architectural tradition of South India, typically tapering upward in multiple storeys and crowned with a barrel-vaulted roof; in later Nayaka-period temples, gopurams became taller than the main shrine tower (vimana).
Governance
/ˈɡʌvərnəns/The system of rules, practices, processes, and institutions through which an organisation or state is directed, controlled, and held accountable to its stakeholders.
Governance
/ˈɡʌvənəns/The exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage a country's affairs at all levels — encompassing the mechanisms, processes, and institutions through which citizens articulate interests, exercise legal rights, meet obligations, and mediate differences.
Gram Sabha
/ɡrɑːm ˈsʌbhɑː/The general body of all registered voters in a panchayat area, constituting the foundational unit of grassroots democracy in India; empowered under Article 243A of the Constitution (inserted by the 73rd Amendment, 1992) with states defining its powers and functions — typically including approval of annual plans, scrutiny of panchayat accounts, and social audit of MGNREGS works.
Gravitation
/ˌɡrævɪˈteɪʃən/The fundamental force of mutual attraction between all bodies that have mass, proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Greenhouse
/ˈɡriːn.haʊs/A structure with glass or translucent walls and roof used to cultivate plants under controlled conditions; in climate science, the term refers to the "greenhouse effect" whereby atmospheric gases trap heat radiated from the Earth's surface, warming the planet.
Grievance
/ˈɡriːvəns/A formal complaint by a citizen or stakeholder regarding inadequate, delayed, or unjust delivery of a public service, or any action by a public authority that causes harm or dissatisfaction.
GSTN
/dʒiː-ɛs-tiː-ɛn/Goods and Services Tax Network — the IT infrastructure backbone that processes all GST registrations, returns, and payments
Guerrilla
/ɡəˈrɪlə/A form of irregular warfare in which small, mobile groups of fighters use hit-and-run tactics — ambushes, raids, and rapid retreats — against a larger conventional army, as perfected by Shivaji in the Western Ghats.
Guild
/ɡɪld/An organised association of artisans or merchants who regulate the practice of their craft or trade in a particular area.
Guillotine
/ˈɡɪlitiːn/A parliamentary procedure in budget passage whereby all Demands for Grants that have not been individually discussed within the allotted time are put to vote simultaneously — passed en masse by the Speaker on the last day allotted for budget discussion — without further debate.
Guillotine
/ˈɡɪlətiːn/A machine for carrying out executions by decapitation, consisting of a tall upright frame from which a heavy angled blade is dropped onto the neck of the condemned person.
Guillotine
/ˈɡɪl.ə.tiːn/A parliamentary procedure by which, at the expiry of the time allocated for discussing a group of clauses or demands for grants, all outstanding items are put to vote without further debate, effectively cutting short discussion.
H
Habeas Corpus
/ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔːpəs/A legal writ requiring that a detained person be brought before a court to determine whether their imprisonment is lawful.
Habeas Corpus
/ˈheɪ.bi.əs ˈkɔː.pəs/A judicial writ requiring that a detained person be brought before a court so that the legality of their detention can be examined.
Haemoglobin
/ˌhiːməˈɡloʊbɪn/The iron-containing oxygen-transport protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it to tissues throughout the body, giving blood its red colour.
Harm Reduction
/hɑːm rɪˈdʌkʃən/A set of practical strategies and policies aimed at reducing the negative consequences of drug use without necessarily requiring complete abstinence -- encompasses interventions like needle exchange, opioid substitution therapy, and overdose prevention, based on the principle of meeting people "where they are."
Hawala
/həˈwɑː.lə/An informal value transfer system operating outside regulated banking channels, in which a money broker (*hawaladar*) in one location instructs a counterpart in another location to release funds to a recipient, with settlement between brokers occurring later on a trust basis without a formal paper trail.
Hazard
/ˈhæzərd/A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon, or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.
Heat Wave
/hiːt weɪv/A prolonged period of abnormally high temperatures — in India, defined by IMD as maximum temperature reaching at least 40 degrees Celsius in the plains (37 degrees Celsius for coastal areas, 30 degrees Celsius for hills) with a departure of 4.5 degrees Celsius or more above normal for at least two consecutive days over at least two stations in a meteorological sub-division.
Hellenistic
/ˌhɛləˈnɪstɪk/Relating to the period of Greek culture, history, and artistic influence that spread across the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE until the rise of Rome.
Heterodox
/ˈhɛtərədɒks/Holding beliefs or opinions that differ from established or orthodox doctrine, especially in religion; in Indian philosophy, referring to schools (such as Buddhism and Jainism) that rejected the authority of the Vedas.
Heterogeneity
/ˌhetərəˈdʒiːnɪɪti/The quality of being composed of parts or elements of different kinds; in sociology, the diversity within a society in terms of race, ethnicity, language, religion, caste, and culture — the opposite of homogeneity.
Hinterland
/ˈhɪntəlænd/The region inland from a coast or port city that is economically tied to it, supplying raw materials and serving as a market for goods passing through the port.
Holocaust
/ˈhɒləkɔːst/The systematic, state-sponsored genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II, resulting in the murder of approximately six million Jews — along with millions of Roma, disabled persons, political opponents, and others.
Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR)
/hjuːˌmæn.ɪˈteər.i.ən əˈsɪs.təns ænd dɪˈzɑːs.tər rɪˈliːf/The deployment of military and civilian assets to provide emergency relief — including search and rescue, medical aid, food, water, shelter, and logistics — to populations affected by natural or man-made disasters, serving both humanitarian objectives and strategic diplomatic goals.
Humus
/ˈhjuːməs/The dark, organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter by soil microorganisms, which improves soil fertility and water retention.
Hydrocarbon
/ˌhaɪdrəˈkɑːrbən/An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms, occurring naturally in petroleum, natural gas, and coal.
I
Impartiality
/ˌɪm.pɑːʃ.iˈæl.ə.ti/The quality of treating all persons and groups equally and without bias, favouritism, or prejudice in decision-making and action.
Impartiality
/ˌɪmpɑːrʃiˈælɪti/The quality of treating all persons, groups, and interests equally and fairly in the exercise of public authority — making decisions based on merit, evidence, and established criteria, free from personal bias, favouritism, or discrimination.
Imprest
/ˈɪmprɛst/A sum of money advanced to a person or body for a specific purpose, with the requirement that accounts be rendered for its expenditure — the Contingency Fund of India operates as an imprest placed at the disposal of the President, to be used for unforeseen expenses pending parliamentary approval.
Inclusive Design
/ɪnˈkluːsɪv dɪˈzaɪn/A design methodology that considers the full range of human diversity -- including ability, age, gender, language, and culture -- from the outset, ensuring that products, environments, and services are usable by as many people as possible without the need for adaptation.
Incubator
/ˈɪŋ.kjʊ.beɪ.tər/An organisation or facility that supports early-stage startups and enterprises by providing mentorship, workspace, funding access, and business development services.
Indicator
/ˈɪndɪkeɪtər/A substance — such as litmus, phenolphthalein, or methyl orange — that changes colour at a specific pH range to signal the endpoint of a chemical reaction or the acidity of a solution.
Industrialisation
/ɪnˌdʌs.tri.ə.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/The process of social and economic transformation whereby a society shifts from a predominantly agrarian, handicraft-based economy to one dominated by mechanised factory production.
Inequality
/ˌɪnɪˈkwɒləti/The uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, income, or social status among individuals or groups within a society, resulting in disparities in living standards and life outcomes.
Inertia
/ɪnˈɜːʃə/The property of matter by which a body remains at rest or continues in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
Infiltration
/ˌɪn.fɪlˈtreɪ.ʃən/The covert entry of persons or small groups across a border or into enemy territory, typically to conduct hostile activities such as terrorism, espionage, or smuggling.
Inflation
/ɪnˈfleɪ.ʃən/A sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time, resulting in a decline in the purchasing power of money.
Infodemic
/ˌɪnfəʊˈdɛmɪk/An overabundance of information — including misinformation and disinformation — during a disease outbreak that makes it difficult for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable guidance; the WHO identified the "infodemic" as a major challenge during COVID-19, as false claims about treatments, vaccines, and the virus's origins spread rapidly through social media.
Input Tax Credit
/ˈɪnpʊt tæks ˈkrɛdɪt/Credit available to a registered person for GST paid on inputs (goods/services) used in furtherance of business
INSARAG
/ɪnˈsɑːr.æɡ/The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group — a global network of countries and organisations, functioning under the UN OCHA umbrella, dedicated to establishing and maintaining standards for international urban search-and-rescue (USAR) operations, including the classification, certification, and coordination of USAR teams deployed to disaster sites worldwide.
Inscription
/ɪnˈskrɪpʃən/Text carved or engraved on a durable surface such as stone, metal, or temple walls, serving as an official record of royal edicts, land grants, administrative procedures, or religious dedications.
Insolation
/ˌɪnsəˈleɪʃən/The amount of incoming solar radiation received per unit area at the Earth's surface or at the top of the atmosphere over a given period of time.
Insurgency
/ɪnˈsɜːrdʒənsi/An organised armed revolt against an established government or authority, typically carried out by non-state actors who are not recognised as belligerents, falling short of a full-scale revolution.
Integration
/ˌɪn.tɪˈɡreɪ.ʃən/The process of combining separate political units into a single unified whole, particularly the consolidation of princely states and provinces into the Indian Union after 1947.
Integrity
/ɪnˈtɛɡrɪti/The quality of being honest and having strong, consistent moral principles — a wholeness of character where one's values, words, and actions remain aligned even in the absence of external scrutiny.
Inundation
/ɪˌnʌn.ˈdeɪ.ʃən/The overflow of water onto land that is normally dry, caused by the rising and spreading of a river, sea, or other water body during a flood event.
Iqta
/ɪqˈtɑːʕ/An administrative practice in Islamic states whereby the right to collect tax revenue from a designated territory was assigned to a military officer (*iqtadar*) in lieu of a cash salary.
Iqtadar
/ɪqˈtɑːdɑːr/The holder of an iqta — a territorial revenue assignment given by the Delhi Sultan in lieu of salary, obligating the holder to maintain troops, collect revenue, administer the territory, and remit surplus to the central treasury.
Irrigation
/ˌɪrɪˈɡeɪʃən/The artificial application of water to land or soil to assist in the cultivation of crops, supplementing or replacing natural rainfall.
Irrigation
/ˌɪrɪˈɡeɪʃən/The artificial supply of water to agricultural land through channels, canals, tanks, or other systems to support crop cultivation, a practice at which the Cholas excelled through constructions such as the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on the Kaveri river.
Isotherm
/ˈaɪsəʊˌθɜːm/A line drawn on a map or chart connecting points that have the same temperature at a given time or the same mean temperature over a given period.
Isotope
/ˈaɪ.sə.toʊp/One of two or more forms of the same element whose atoms have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, giving them the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotope
/ˈaɪ.sə.təʊp/One of two or more forms of the same chemical element that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei.
J
Jacobin
/ˈdʒækəbɪn/A member of the radical Jacobin Club during the French Revolution, which under Robespierre's leadership dominated the Committee of Public Safety and drove the Reign of Terror (1793--1794).
Jagirdari
/ˌdʒɑːɡɪrˈdɑːri/The Mughal system of land revenue assignment whereby officials (jagirdars) were granted the right to collect agricultural revenue from specified territories (jagirs) in lieu of cash salaries.
Jhum Cultivation
/dʒʌm ˌkʌltɪˈveɪʃən/A traditional form of shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture practised widely in the hill regions of Northeast India — forest land is cleared by cutting and burning, cultivated for 1–3 seasons until soil fertility declines, then abandoned and allowed to regenerate while the cultivator moves to a new plot; the cycle traditionally took 15–20 years but has shortened to 3–5 years due to population pressure, leading to soil degradation and biodiversity loss.
Jurisprudence
/ˌdʒʊərɪsˈpruːdəns/The theory, philosophy, and science of law, encompassing the principles on which legal rules are based and the methods by which courts interpret and apply them.
K
Karkhana
/kɑːrˈkɑːnə/A state-run royal workshop during the Sultanate and Mughal periods that produced luxury goods — including fine textiles, weapons, jewellery, miniature paintings, and perfumes — for the imperial court and military.
Keystone Species
/ˈkiːstəʊn ˈspiːʃiːz/A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its ecosystem relative to its abundance, such that its removal would cause significant structural change to the ecological community.
Khanqah
/ˈkɑːnəɡɑː/A Sufi hospice or residential centre for spiritual practice, communal worship, and charitable activities, where a shaikh and his disciples live, meditate, and serve the poor.
Kharif
/kəˈriːf/The monsoon cropping season in the Indian subcontinent, with sowing in June-July and harvesting in September-October, covering crops such as rice, maize, cotton, jute, and groundnut.
Khilafat
/xɪˈlɑː.fət/The institution of the Caliphate — the political-religious office of successor to the Prophet Muhammad as leader of the worldwide Muslim community (Ummah); in the Indian context, refers to the movement (1919--1924) by Indian Muslims to pressure the British government to preserve the authority of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph.
Kinetic Kill Vehicle
/kɪˈnɛtɪk kɪl ˈviːɪkl/A projectile that destroys its target purely through the force of impact at extremely high velocity, without using any explosive warhead -- the kinetic energy of the collision is sufficient to obliterate the target. Used in ASAT weapons and ballistic missile defence systems.
L
Laissez-faire
/ˌlɛs.eɪ ˈfɛər/An economic doctrine advocating minimal government intervention in commerce and industry, holding that markets function most efficiently when left to operate through free competition and the laws of supply and demand.
Laterite
/ˈlætəraɪt/A reddish, iron-rich soil formed in tropical and subtropical regions through intense leaching that removes silica and enriches the residual material with iron and aluminium oxides.
Leachate
/ˈliː.tʃeɪt/Liquid that has percolated through solid waste or soil, dissolving and carrying contaminants such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogens, particularly the contaminated water that drains from landfill sites.
Leaching
/ˈliːtʃɪŋ/The process by which soluble minerals and nutrients are washed out of the upper soil layers by percolating rainwater, leaving behind insoluble residues.
Legion
/ˈliːdʒən/A large military unit, originally a division of the ancient Roman army numbering 3,000-6,000 soldiers; in the context of Bose's activities, the Indian Legion (Indische Legion or Legion Freies Indien) was a force of approximately 3,000-4,500 Indian POWs raised in Germany to fight for Indian independence.
Liberalisation
/ˌlɪbərəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/The relaxation or removal of government regulations, restrictions, and controls on economic activity to encourage private enterprise, market competition, and efficiency.
Lignite
/ˈlɪɡnaɪt/A soft, brownish-black, low-grade coal with a relatively high moisture content in which the texture of the original wood is often still visible, representing an intermediate stage between peat and bituminous coal in the process of coalification.
Linguistic Nationalism
/lɪŋˈɡwɪstɪk ˈnæʃənəlɪzəm/An ideology that equates national or regional identity with a shared language, demanding that a particular language be recognised as the official, medium of instruction, or defining marker of a territorial unit — in India manifested in demands for linguistic states, three-language formula disputes, and Hindi imposition controversies.
Liquefaction
/ˌlɪk.wɪˈfæk.ʃən/A phenomenon in which saturated, loosely packed soil or sediment loses its strength and stiffness during earthquake shaking, behaving temporarily as a liquid rather than a solid, causing buildings to sink and infrastructure to collapse.
Liquidity
/lɪˈkwɪdɪti/The ease with which an asset can be converted into cash without significantly affecting its market value, or the availability of liquid assets in a financial system.
Lithium-Ion Battery
/ˈlɪθiəm ˈaɪɒn ˈbætəri/A rechargeable electrochemical cell in which lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode during discharge and back during charging, offering high energy density, low self-discharge, and long cycle life -- making it the dominant battery technology for electric vehicles, smartphones, laptops, and grid-scale energy storage.
Lithosphere
/ˈlɪθəsfɪə/The rigid outermost shell of the Earth, comprising the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle, which is broken into tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere below.
Locus Standi
/ˈloʊkəs ˈstændaɪ/The right or capacity of a party to bring an action before a court — traditionally, only a person who has suffered a legal injury can invoke the court's jurisdiction. PIL relaxed this requirement, allowing any public-spirited person to approach the court on behalf of those unable to do so.
Logistics
/ləˈdʒɪs.tɪks/The detailed planning, organisation, and implementation of the movement, supply, and maintenance of personnel, equipment, and materials, particularly during disaster response and relief operations.
Logistics
/ləˈdʒɪstɪks/The process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption.
M
Malleable
/ˈmælɪəbəl/Capable of being hammered, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets without breaking — a characteristic physical property of most metals, with gold being the most malleable.
Malnutrition
/ˌmælnjuːˈtrɪʃən/A condition resulting from an unbalanced or insufficient diet, encompassing both undernutrition (stunting, wasting, micronutrient deficiencies) and overnutrition (overweight, obesity).
Malware
/ˈmæl.weər/Software intentionally designed to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorised access to computer systems, encompassing viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, spyware, and other malicious programmes.
Mandamus
/mænˈdeɪ.məs/A judicial writ issued by a superior court commanding a public authority, tribunal, or lower court to perform a mandatory or ministerial duty that it has failed or refused to perform.
Mandamus
/mænˈdeɪməs/A judicial writ (order) issued by a superior court commanding a public authority, tribunal, or inferior court to perform a mandatory or ministerial duty correctly — derived from the Latin for "we command." In PIL practice, "continuing mandamus" refers to a court keeping a case open indefinitely to monitor ongoing compliance with its orders.
Mandate
/ˈmæn.deɪt/An official or authoritative command, order, or commission granted to a person, body, or state to act on behalf of another, or the authority to carry out a policy regarded as given by an electorate.
Mansabdar
/mʌnˈsʌbdɑːr/A military-civil official in the Mughal Empire who held a ranked position (mansab) determining his status, salary, and obligation to maintain a prescribed number of cavalry, with dual designations of zat (personal) and sawar (horsemen) ranks.
Mansabdari
/ˌmænsəbˈdɑːri/The hierarchical ranking and salary system introduced by Akbar in the Mughal Empire, whereby every civil and military official was assigned a mansab (rank) determining their status, pay, and military obligations.
Maoism
/ˈmaʊɪzəm/The political theory and practice derived from the teachings of Mao Zedong, emphasising peasant-based revolution (as opposed to the urban proletariat of orthodox Marxism), guerrilla warfare, mass mobilisation campaigns, and continuous revolution to prevent the emergence of a new ruling class within the communist party itself.
Maoist
/ˈmaʊɪst/A follower of the political and military ideology of Mao Zedong, which advocates armed revolution led by the peasantry to overthrow capitalist and feudal systems through protracted guerrilla warfare.
Marginalised
/ˈmɑːrdʒɪnəˌlaɪzd/Pushed to the edges of society and denied full access to rights, resources, opportunities, and social participation — typically on the basis of caste, class, gender, ethnicity, disability, or religion.
Maritime
/ˈmærɪtaɪm/Relating to the sea, navigation, or seafaring activities, especially overseas trade and naval expeditions.
Martial Law
/ˈmɑːʃəl lɔː/The imposition of direct military control over normal civil functions of government, typically in response to war or civil disorder — distinct from a constitutional emergency, and not explicitly defined in the Indian Constitution though mentioned in Article 34.
Martyr
/ˈmɑːrtər/A person who suffers death or great sacrifice for a cause, belief, or principle, especially one who is killed for refusing to renounce a political or religious conviction.
Meander
/miˈændər/A sinuous curve or loop in a river's course, formed by lateral erosion and deposition as the river flows across a floodplain.
Megacity
/ˈmɛɡəsɪti/An urban agglomeration with a total population of 10 million or more inhabitants, characterised by enormous economic output, complex governance challenges, and significant socio-environmental pressures including congestion, pollution, and housing stress.
Mercantilism
/ˈmɜːrkəntɪlɪzəm/An economic theory and policy dominant in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries, holding that a nation's wealth depends on accumulating gold and silver through a favourable balance of trade, with exports exceeding imports.
Metaverse
/ˈmɛtəˌvɜːrs/A persistent, immersive, interconnected virtual environment — experienced through virtual reality, augmented reality, or digital interfaces — in which users interact with each other and digital objects in real time.
Microplastics
/ˌmaɪkroʊˈplæstɪks/Tiny plastic particles less than 5 millimetres in diameter, originating from the fragmentation of larger plastic debris, industrial processes (plastic pellets or "nurdles"), synthetic textile fibres released during washing, and microbeads in cosmetics -- pervasive in marine environments, freshwater systems, soil, and even the atmosphere, ingested by organisms at every trophic level and entering the human food chain.
Migration
/maɪˈɡɹeɪʃən/The movement of people from one place to another, especially a change of residence or habitat from one locality to another, either within a country or across international borders.
Milinda
/mɪˈlɪndə/The Pali name for the Indo-Greek king Menander I (c. 165/155–130 BCE), who ruled from Sagala (Sialkot) and is celebrated in the Buddhist text *Milindapanho* for his philosophical dialogue with the monk Nagasena.
Miniature
/ˈmɪnɪtʃər/A small, highly detailed painting, especially the style of illustration that flourished in Mughal, Rajasthani, and Pahari courts, depicting court scenes, portraits, nature, and mythological narratives on paper or manuscript pages.
Misinformation
/ˌmɪsɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/False or inaccurate information that is spread regardless of intent to deceive, distinguishing it from disinformation, which involves deliberate deception.
Mitigation
/ˌmɪt.ɪˈɡeɪ.ʃən/The act of reducing the severity, seriousness, or impact of a disaster or hazard through pre-emptive measures such as risk assessment, structural reinforcement, early warning systems, and policy interventions.
Mitigation
/ˌmɪtɪˈɡeɪʃən/In climate science, a human intervention to reduce the sources of greenhouse gas emissions or enhance the sinks that absorb them, thereby slowing the rate of climate change.
Mobilisation
/ˌməʊ.bɪ.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/ (BrE) · /ˌmoʊ.bɪ.ləˈzeɪ.ʃən/ (AmE)The act of organising, assembling, and deploying resources — including personnel, equipment, and supplies — for active service or emergency response, particularly the rapid activation of disaster response forces before or during a crisis.
Mohorovicic
/məʊhəˈɹɒvɪtʃɪtʃ/The Mohorovicic discontinuity (commonly shortened to Moho) is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle, occurring at an average depth of about 35 km beneath continents and about 10 km beneath the ocean floor, identified by an abrupt change in seismic wave velocities.
Momentum
/moʊˈmɛntəm/The product of a body's mass and velocity, representing the quantity of motion possessed by the moving body.
Monasticism
/məˈnæstɪsɪzəm/A religious way of life in which individuals renounce worldly pursuits and live in a community under a common rule, observing celibacy, poverty, and discipline, as practised in Buddhist sanghas and Jain monastic orders.
Monomer
/ˈmɒnəmər/A relatively small molecule that can bond chemically with other identical or similar molecules to form a polymer chain.
Monopoly
/məˈnɒpəli/A market structure in which a single seller or entity is the sole provider of a good or service in a given market, with no close substitutes — giving the entity significant power to influence price, output, and market conditions without effective competitive constraint. Indian competition law does not prohibit monopoly per se but prohibits the **abuse** of a dominant position.
Monsoon
/mɒnˈsuːn/A seasonal reversal of wind direction associated with large-scale changes in atmospheric pressure, bringing prolonged wet and dry seasons to tropical and subtropical regions.
Moraine
/məˈreɪn/A mass of rocks, sediment, and debris deposited by a glacier at its edges (lateral moraine), at its terminus (terminal moraine), or beneath it (ground moraine) — terminal moraines often form natural dams that impound glacial lakes, making them critical to GLOF hazard assessment.
Moral Hazard
/ˈmɒrəl ˈhæzəd/The risk that a party insulated from risk (by insurance or government bailout) behaves differently than it would if fully exposed to the risk — in disaster financing, moral hazard arises when governments or individuals take fewer precautions because they expect to be compensated after a disaster.
MSME
/ˌɛm.ɛs.ɛm.ˈiː/An abbreviation for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises — a classification of business establishments based on investment in plant and machinery and annual turnover, as defined under the MSMED Act, 2006.
Mudra
/muˈdrɑː/A symbolic or ritual hand gesture used in Indian classical dance, yoga, Hindu and Buddhist iconography to convey specific meanings, emotions, or spiritual concepts; the Natyashastra describes 24 basic mudras and the Abhinaya Darpana lists 28.
Multidimensional Poverty
/ˌmʌltiˌdaɪˈmenʃənəl ˈpɒvəti/A measure of poverty that goes beyond income to capture multiple simultaneous deprivations across health, education, and living standards — operationalised through the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) developed by UNDP and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), using 10 indicators weighted across three dimensions.
Multilateral
/ˌmʌl.tɪˈlæt.ər.əl/Involving three or more parties, especially nations, in negotiations, agreements, or cooperative arrangements.
Municipality
/mjuːˌnɪsɪˈpælɪti/An urban local body — such as a Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, or Municipal Corporation — constitutionally mandated under Part IX-A to govern a city, town, or transitional area.
Mutation
/mjuːˈteɪʃən/A permanent alteration in the nucleotide sequence of DNA that may arise spontaneously during replication or be induced by mutagens such as radiation or chemicals.
Mutiny
/ˈmjuːtɪni/An organised, forcible rebellion by soldiers or sailors against the authority of their commanding officers or the government they serve.
Mysticism
/ˈmɪstɪˌsɪzəm/The belief in and pursuit of direct, personal experience of the divine through spiritual practices such as meditation, prayer, and asceticism, rather than through scripture or ritual alone.
N
Nationalism
/ˈnæʃənəlɪzəm/An ideology that emphasises loyalty, devotion, and identification with a particular nation, asserting its right to political self-determination and sovereign statehood.
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
/ˈnæʃ.ən.əl.i dɪˈtɜːr.mɪnd ˌkɒn.trɪˈbjuː.ʃənz/Self-defined climate action plans submitted by each party to the Paris Agreement, outlining their targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change — updated every five years with a ratchet mechanism requiring progressively higher ambition.
Naturalisation
/ˌnætʃərəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/The legal process by which a foreign national acquires citizenship of a country after fulfilling prescribed conditions — in India, this requires 12 years of ordinary residence (reduced to 5 years for CAA-eligible persons), good character, knowledge of a scheduled language, and intention to reside in India.
Naxalism
/ˈnæksəlɪzəm/A communist insurgent ideology in India, rooted in Maoist principles of armed peasant revolution against the state to overthrow existing socio-economic structures and establish a classless society.
Nayankara
/ˈnɑːjənkɑːrə/A system of military land tenure in the Vijayanagara Empire under which commanders (Nayakas) were assigned territories in exchange for maintaining a stipulated number of troops, collecting revenue, and remitting a share to the imperial treasury.
Nepotism
/ˈnep.ə.tɪ.zəm/The practice of favouring relatives or close associates for positions of power, employment, or other advantages, regardless of their merit or qualifications.
Neutrality
/njuːˈtrælɪti/In the context of civil service ethics, the principle that a public servant must serve the elected government of the day with equal commitment regardless of its political ideology, without allowing personal political beliefs to influence official decisions or actions.
No Development Zone (NDZ)
/noʊ dɪˈvɛləpmənt zoʊn/A designated buffer area along India's coastline, measured from the High Tide Line (HTL) landward, within which construction of buildings and other development activities are prohibited or severely restricted — designed to protect fragile coastal ecosystems from encroachment and to serve as a natural buffer against storm surges and sea-level rise.
Non-Alignment
/nɒn əˈlaɪnmənt/A foreign policy stance of not formally aligning with or against any major power bloc, while independently evaluating each international issue on its merits; championed by Jawaharlal Nehru, it was India's foundational foreign policy doctrine during the Cold War and led to the Non-Aligned Movement (founded 1961, Belgrade).
Non-Alignment
/nɒn.əˈlaɪn.mənt/A foreign policy stance of not formally aligning with or against any major power bloc, maintaining strategic autonomy to engage independently with all nations based on national interest.
Nowcasting
/ˈnaʊkɑːstɪŋ/Weather forecasting for a very short period (typically 0-3 hours ahead), providing detailed, location-specific predictions of severe weather events such as thunderstorms, lightning, and heavy rainfall -- relies heavily on Doppler radar and satellite data.
Nritta
/ˈnrɪtə/Pure rhythmic dance in the Indian classical tradition — abstract, non-narrative movement that showcases rhythm, speed, and technical skill through footwork and body patterns, without conveying any specific story or emotion.
Numismatics
/ˌnjuːmɪzˈmætɪks/The systematic study and collection of coins, tokens, medals, and paper currency as historical and archaeological evidence.
O
Oligarchy
/ˈɒl.ɪ.ɡɑː.ki/A form of government in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, privileged group rather than the wider population.
Ombudsman
/ˈɒmbʊdzmən/An independent official appointed to investigate complaints by private citizens against government authorities or public institutions — the Lokpal and Lokayukta function as India's ombudsman institutions for corruption-related grievances.
Ombudsman
/ˈɒm.bʊdz.mən/An independent official appointed to investigate citizens' complaints against government departments or public bodies, with authority to examine records and recommend remedial action but typically lacking the power to impose sanctions directly.
Ombudsman
/ˈɒmbʊdzmən/An independent official appointed to investigate citizens' complaints against government authorities or public institutions and recommend corrective action.
Ordinance
/ˈɔːr.dɪ.nəns/A temporary law promulgated by the executive head of state (the President under Article 123, or a Governor under Article 213) when the legislature is not in session, having the same force as an Act of Parliament but ceasing to operate six weeks after the legislature reassembles.
Orientalism
/ˌɔːriˈɛntəlɪzəm/The scholarly study, depiction, or imitation of Eastern cultures by Western observers; in the context of British India, it refers to the school of thought that advocated promoting traditional Indian learning (Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic) as the basis for education policy.
Orthodoxy
/ˈɔːrθədɒksi/Strict adherence to established, traditional, and accepted beliefs or practices, especially in religion.
Outcome Budgeting
/ˈaʊtkʌm ˈbʌdʒɪtɪŋ/A budgeting framework that shifts the focus from inputs (rupees allocated) to outputs (deliverables) and outcomes (societal impact), requiring ministries to define measurable performance targets for each rupee of expenditure and report against them.
P
Panchayat
/pʌnˈtʃɑːjət/An elected council of local self-government in rural India, operating at the village, block, or district level under the constitutional framework of Part IX.
Panchsheel
/pʌntʃ.ʃiːl/The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence — mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, and peaceful coexistence — that guide interstate relations.
Pandemic
/pænˈdɛmɪk/An outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads across a wide geographical area — typically multiple countries or continents — and affects a significant proportion of the population.
Pangaea
/pænˈdʒiːə/The single supercontinent that existed approximately 335–175 million years ago, comprising all of Earth's major landmasses before it began to break apart into Laurasia (northern) and Gondwanaland (southern) during the Mesozoic Era.
Parallel Government
/ˈpærəlɛl ˈɡʌvənmənt/An alternative administrative structure established by a resistance movement to replace or displace the authority of the ruling power in a given territory; during the Quit India Movement, parallel governments were set up in Ballia, Tamluk (Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar), and Satara (Prati Sarkar) to administer justice, collect revenue, and provide public services.
Paramountcy
/ˈpærəmaʊntsi/The supreme authority exercised by the British Crown over the princely states of India, controlling their external affairs, defence, and communications while allowing internal autonomy — a doctrine that lapsed with the transfer of power in 1947.
Partition
/pɑːrˈtɪʃən/The division of a political territory into two or more separate, independent entities, especially the 1947 division of British India into the sovereign dominions of India and Pakistan.
Pastoral
/ˈpæs.tər.əl/Relating to the herding and rearing of livestock, especially cattle and sheep, as the primary economic activity of a society.
Pathogen
/ˈpæθədʒən/Any microorganism — such as a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite — capable of causing disease in a host organism.
Patriarchy
/ˈpeɪ.tri.ɑː.ki/A social system in which men hold primary authority and dominance in political leadership, moral authority, property ownership, and family roles, with power and privilege largely passed through the male line.
Patronage
/ˈpætrənɪdʒ/The support, encouragement, or financial aid that a powerful person such as a king or noble bestows upon artists, scholars, or religious institutions.
Payload
/ˈpeɪloʊd/The cargo carried by a launch vehicle into space, including satellites, scientific instruments, crew modules, or other equipment — distinct from the vehicle's own propulsion and structural systems.
Peninsular
/pəˈnɪnsjʊlə(r)/Of or relating to a peninsula — a landmass almost entirely surrounded by water but connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land.
Perestroika
/ˌpɛrəˈstrɔɪkə/The programme of economic and political restructuring initiated by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev from 1985, aimed at modernising the Soviet system by introducing limited market mechanisms and decentralising economic decision-making — it ultimately contributed to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.
Peristalsis
/ˌpɛrɪˈstælsɪs/The involuntary wavelike contraction and relaxation of muscles in the walls of hollow organs such as the oesophagus and intestines, which propels food and other contents forward through the digestive tract.
Pharmacogenomics
/ˌfɑːrməkoʊdʒɪˈnɒmɪks/The branch of genomics that studies how an individual's genetic makeup influences their response to pharmaceutical drugs, enabling the selection of optimal drug types and dosages tailored to a patient's genotype — the foundation of personalised or precision medicine.
Phenotype
/ˈfiːnətaɪp/The set of observable physical, biochemical, and behavioural characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Phishing
/ˈfɪʃ.ɪŋ/A form of cyber attack in which a malicious actor sends fraudulent emails, messages, or creates fake websites that impersonate trusted entities in order to trick victims into revealing sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details.
Photovoltaic Effect
/ˌfoʊtoʊvɒlˈteɪɪk ɪˈfɛkt/The generation of an electric current when a semiconductor material (typically silicon) is exposed to light — photons with sufficient energy liberate electrons from their atomic bonds, creating electron-hole pairs at a p-n junction that produce a voltage and drive a current through an external circuit.
Phumdis
/ˈfʊmdiːz/Heterogeneous masses of floating vegetation, soil, and organic matter at various stages of decomposition that form naturally on Loktak Lake in Manipur — these floating islands can be several metres thick and support unique ecosystems, including the Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world's only floating national park and the last habitat of the endangered Sangai deer.
Physiography
/ˌfɪziˈɒɡrəfi/The branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's natural physical features, including landforms, climate, vegetation, and hydrology.
Planning
/ˈplænɪŋ/The process of formulating a coordinated scheme of economic and social objectives with specific targets and resource allocations over a defined period; in post-independence India, centralised economic planning through Five-Year Plans was the primary development strategy from 1951 to 2017.
Plebiscite
/ˈplɛb.ɪ.saɪt/A direct vote by the entire electorate of a state or territory on a specific political question, such as a change of sovereignty or constitutional amendment.
Pluralism
/ˈplʊərəlɪzəm/A social and political condition in which multiple distinct groups — based on ethnicity, religion, language, caste, or culture — coexist within a single society, each maintaining its identity while participating in a shared civic and political framework; a normative commitment to recognising and respecting this diversity.
Pluralism
/ˈplʊərəlɪzəm/A condition or system in which multiple distinct ethnic, religious, cultural, or political groups coexist within a society while maintaining their unique identities and participating equally in civic life.
Poaching
/ˈpoʊ.tʃɪŋ/The illegal hunting, capturing, or killing of wild animals in violation of local, national, or international wildlife conservation laws.
Polymer
/ˈpɒlɪmər/A large molecule (macromolecule) composed of many repeating structural units called monomers, bonded together by covalent chemical bonds.
Poverty Line
/ˈpɒvəti laɪn/A minimum income or consumption threshold below which an individual or household is classified as poor — used to estimate the size of the poor population and target welfare programmes; in India measured in per capita monthly expenditure and periodically revised by expert committees appointed by the Planning Commission / NITI Aayog.
Precedent
/ˈprɛsɪdənt/A decided case that serves as an authoritative example or rule for identical or similar cases arising subsequently in law.
Preparedness
/pɹɪˈpɛəd.nəs/ (BrE) · /pɹɪˈpɛɹd.nəs/ (AmE)The state of readiness to respond effectively to a disaster or emergency, achieved through advance planning, training, resource stockpiling, early warning systems, and regular drills.
Primary Deficit
/ˈpraɪmeri ˈdɛfɪsɪt/The fiscal deficit minus interest payments on accumulated debt. It isolates the current year's policy-induced borrowing from the legacy burden of past debt. Formula: **Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit − Interest Payments**. A zero primary deficit means the government is borrowing only to service past debt — not to fund current operations.
Privatisation
/ˌpraɪvətaɪˈzeɪʃən/The transfer of ownership, management, or control of a business, enterprise, or public service from the government (public sector) to private individuals or corporations.
Probiotic
/ˌprəʊbaɪˈɒtɪk/A live microorganism — typically a bacterium such as *Lactobacillus* or *Bifidobacterium* — that, when consumed in adequate amounts, confers a health benefit on the host by supporting gut flora.
Probity
/ˈprəʊbɪti/The quality of having proven integrity and strong moral principles, encompassing uprightness, honesty, and strict adherence to ethical standards in both personal and professional conduct.
Probity
/ˈprɒbɪti/Proven integrity and uprightness in the discharge of public duties — encompassing honesty, incorruptibility, and adherence to the highest ethical standards in governance.
Probity
/ˈprɒbɪti/The quality of having strong moral principles, honesty, and decency — especially in the context of public office, where it denotes proven integrity and incorruptibility in the discharge of official duties.
Probity
/ˈprəʊbɪti/Complete and confirmed integrity; strong moral uprightness characterised by honesty, adherence to ethical principles, and refusal to engage in corruption or misconduct — a core foundational value for civil servants in India.
Proclamation
/ˌprɒkləˈmeɪʃən/A formal public announcement or official declaration issued by the President under constitutional authority, such as the proclamation of a National Emergency under Article 352 or President's Rule under Article 356.
Procurement
/prəˈkjʊəmənt/The government's purchase of agricultural produce (primarily food grains) from farmers at the Minimum Support Price through agencies like the Food Corporation of India, to ensure price support and maintain buffer stocks.
Propaganda
/ˌprɒpəˈɡændə/The systematic dissemination of information — often biased, selective, or misleading — by a state, organisation, or movement to promote a particular political cause, ideology, or point of view.
Prorogation
/ˌprəʊ.rə.ˈɡeɪ.ʃən/The act of ending a session of Parliament by an order of the President, which terminates all pending business (except Bills pending in Rajya Sabha) without dissolving the House.
Protectionism
/prəˈtɛkʃənɪzəm/A government policy of shielding domestic industries from foreign competition through tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers.
Provisional
/prəˈvɪʒənəl/Arranged or existing for the present time only, intended to be temporary until replaced by something permanent; Bose proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on 21 October 1943 in Singapore as a transitional authority pending the liberation of Indian territory.
Proxy War
/ˈprɒksi wɔː/An armed conflict in which major powers support and direct opposing sides without engaging each other in direct combat — a defining feature of the Cold War, as the USA and USSR fought indirectly through client states in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and elsewhere.
Purna Swaraj
/ˈpʊərnɑː swəˈrɑːdʒ/The declaration of complete independence from British rule, adopted as the goal of the Indian National Congress at its Lahore session on 19 December 1929, replacing the earlier demand for Dominion Status.
Q
Quadrilateral
/ˌkwɒdrɪˈlætərəl/Having four sides; in geopolitics, describing a strategic arrangement or dialogue involving four parties, as in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad).
Quantitative Easing
/ˌkwɒntɪtətɪv ˈiːzɪŋ/An unconventional monetary policy in which a central bank purchases government bonds or other financial assets to inject money into the economy when conventional interest rate tools are exhausted.
Quantum
/ˈkwɒntəm/In computing, relating to a fundamentally new paradigm that exploits quantum-mechanical phenomena — superposition, entanglement, and interference — to process information using qubits rather than classical binary bits, enabling exponentially faster solutions for certain categories of problems.
Quasi-Judicial
/ˌkweɪzaɪ dʒuːˈdɪʃəl/Possessing some but not all characteristics of a court, including the authority to hold hearings, examine evidence, and make binding decisions — as exercised by bodies like the Election Commission and National Commissions.
Quorum
/ˈkwɔː.rəm/The minimum number of members who must be present in a House for business to be validly transacted; in both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, it is one-tenth of the total membership of the House (Article 100).
Quota
/ˈkwoʊtə/A government-imposed numerical limit on the quantity of a specific good that may be imported or exported during a defined period.
R
Rabi
/ˈrɑːbiː/The winter cropping season in the Indian subcontinent, with sowing in October-November and harvesting in March-April, covering crops such as wheat, barley, gram, mustard, and peas.
Radicalization
/ˌrædɪkəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process by which an individual or group adopts increasingly extreme political, religious, or ideological positions, often to the point of justifying or engaging in violence.
Raga
/ˈrɑːɡə/A melodic framework in Indian classical music consisting of a specific set of notes, characteristic ascending and descending patterns, and prescribed ornamentation, designed to evoke a particular mood or emotional state (*rasa*).
Raga
/ˈrɑːɡə/A melodic framework for improvisation and composition in Indian classical music, defined by specific ascending and descending note patterns, associated moods, and often a prescribed time of day for performance; each raga has the ability to "colour the mind" and evoke a particular aesthetic emotion.
Ratification
/ˌrætɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/The formal approval of a constitutional amendment by the legislatures of not less than half of the states, required under Article 368 for amendments affecting federal provisions such as the distribution of legislative powers, the Supreme Court, and the election of the President.
Realpolitik
/reɪˈɑːlpɒlɪˌtiːk/A system of politics based on practical considerations and national interest rather than on ideological, moral, or ethical principles — associated especially with Bismarck's statecraft and Cavour's diplomacy.
Realpolitik
/reɪˈɑːl.pɒl.ɪˌtiːk/A system of politics or diplomacy based primarily on practical considerations of power and self-interest rather than on ideological, moral, or ethical principles.
Redressal
/rɪˈdrɛsəl/The act of setting right a wrong, grievance, or complaint — in the consumer context, the process by which a consumer obtains relief (refund, replacement, compensation, or discontinuation of unfair practice) through the consumer disputes redressal machinery established under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019.
Redressal
/rɪˈdrɛsəl/The process of receiving, investigating, and resolving complaints or grievances through an institutional mechanism, providing a remedy or corrective action to the affected person.
Referendum
/ˌrɛfəˈrɛndəm/A direct vote by the entire electorate of a territory on a specific political question, such as the 1947 referendums in the NWFP and Sylhet to decide which dominion to join.
Refraction
/rɪˈfrækʃən/The bending of a wave, especially light, as it passes from one medium into another of different optical density, caused by a change in the wave's speed.
Regionalism
/ˈriːdʒənəlɪzəm/A political, social, or cultural movement that prioritises the interests, identity, or autonomy of a particular region over national or broader interests — ranging from moderate demands for regional development and language recognition to extreme forms demanding secession or separate statehood.
Regulatory
/ˈrɛɡjʊlətəri/Pertaining to the making, monitoring, and enforcement of rules and standards by an authority established to oversee a specific sector — such as TRAI for telecommunications or SEBI for securities markets.
Rehabilitation
/ˌɹiː.əˌbɪl.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/The process of restoring disaster-affected communities, infrastructure, and livelihoods to normal functioning, encompassing reconstruction of damaged structures, restoration of essential services, and psychosocial support to affected populations.
Renaissance
/ˌrɛnəˈsɑːns/A period of cultural and intellectual rebirth or revival, marked by renewed interest in art, literature, science, and learning.
Renunciation
/rɪˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən/The formal act of voluntarily giving up or relinquishing a right, claim, or privilege — in the citizenship context, a citizen's voluntary declaration giving up Indian citizenship, which upon registration by the prescribed authority results in the loss of citizenship for that person and their minor children.
Repo Rate
/ˈriːpoʊ reɪt/The interest rate at which a central bank lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities, with an agreement to repurchase them.
Repression
/rɪˈprɛʃən/The use of force or authority by a government to suppress political dissent, restrict civil liberties, and crush opposition movements; during the Quit India Movement, British repression included mass arrests of over 100,000 people, machine-gun fire on crowds, aerial strafing, press censorship, and collective fines on villages.
Republic
/rɪˈpʌblɪk/A form of government in which power is held by the people or their elected representatives rather than by a monarch or emperor.
Republic
/rɪˈpʌb.lɪk/A form of government in which sovereignty rests with the people and their elected representatives, and the head of state is elected rather than hereditary.
Reservation
/ˌrɛzərˈveɪʃən/A system of affirmative action in India that sets aside a proportion of seats in government jobs, educational institutions, and elected bodies for members of historically disadvantaged groups (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and Economically Weaker Sections) to promote social equality and correct historical injustice.
Reservation
/ˌrɛz.əˈveɪ.ʃən/A system of affirmative action under the Indian Constitution that sets aside a specified proportion of seats in legislatures, public employment, and educational institutions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes to ensure their adequate representation.
Reservation
/ˌrezəˈveɪʃən/A constitutionally mandated affirmative action policy in India that sets aside a fixed percentage of seats in government jobs, educational institutions, and elected bodies for Scheduled Castes (15%), Scheduled Tribes (7.5%), and Other Backward Classes (27%) — with additional provisions for Economically Weaker Sections (10% under the 103rd Amendment, 2019) — to rectify historical discrimination and ensure adequate representation.
Resilience
/rɪˈzɪliəns/The ability of a system, community, or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the effects of a disaster in a timely and efficient manner.
Resilience
/rɪˈzɪliəns/The ability of a community or system exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the effects of a disaster in a timely and efficient manner -- encompassing both physical infrastructure and social systems.
Resilience
/rɪˈzɪliəns/The ability of a system, community, or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform, and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner — including through the preservation and restoration of essential basic structures and functions through risk management.
Resonance
/ˈrɛzənəns/The phenomenon in which a system vibrates with abnormally large amplitude when subjected to an external force at or near its natural frequency.
Retrofitting
/ˈɹɛt.ɹəʊˌfɪt.ɪŋ/ (BrE) · /ˈɹɛt.ɹoʊˌfɪt.ɪŋ/ (AmE)The process of adding new components, reinforcements, or safety features to existing structures or systems that were not present in the original design, particularly strengthening older buildings to withstand earthquakes or other natural hazards.
Revenue Deficit
/ˈrɛvənjuː ˈdɛfɪsɪt/The shortfall when a government's revenue expenditure (salaries, interest payments, subsidies, maintenance) exceeds its revenue receipts (tax and non-tax revenues). It measures the extent to which the government borrows to finance current consumption rather than capital formation. Formula: **Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure − Revenue Receipts**.
Revolution (in agricultural context)
/ˌrɛvəˈluːʃən/A fundamental and relatively rapid transformation in agricultural practices, technology, and output that dramatically increases food production — as in the Green Revolution (food grains), White Revolution (dairy), and Blue Revolution (fisheries).
Revolutionary
/ˌrɛvəˈluːʃənəri/A person who advocates or engages in the forcible overthrow of an established government or social order in favour of a new system.
Risorgimento
/rɪˌzɔːdʒɪˈmɛntoʊ/The 19th-century political and social movement for the unification of Italy into a single nation-state, spanning from the Congress of Vienna (1815) to the capture of Rome (1870).
Ryotwari
/ˈraɪətˌwɑːri/A system of land revenue collection in British India in which the government assessed and collected taxes directly from individual cultivators (ryots) without any intermediary landlord.
S
Salinisation
/ˌsælɪnaɪˈzeɪʃən/The accumulation of water-soluble salts -- primarily sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), and calcium sulphate (CaSO4) -- in the soil profile to levels that adversely affect plant growth and soil structure, typically caused by irrigation without adequate drainage, capillary rise of saline groundwater in waterlogged areas, or intrusion of seawater in coastal zones.
Salinity
/səˈlɪnɪti/The measure of the total concentration of dissolved salts in a body of water, typically expressed in parts per thousand (ppt), with the average ocean salinity being approximately 35 ppt.
Salt March
/sɒlt mɑːtʃ/A 387-kilometre march led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi (12 March to 6 April 1930), during which Gandhi and his followers broke the British salt law by making salt from seawater, launching the mass Civil Disobedience Movement.
Sanctuary
/ˈsæŋk.tʃu.er.i/A designated protected area where wild animals, birds, and plants are shielded from hunting, poaching, and habitat destruction, with limited human activities permitted under regulation.
Sanctum
/ˈsæŋktəm/The innermost and holiest chamber of a Hindu temple (garbhagriha, literally "womb-house"), where the principal deity is enshrined; access is typically restricted to priests, and the entire temple structure is oriented around this sacred space.
Saponification
/səˌpɒnɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/The hydrolysis of a fat or oil with a metallic alkali (such as NaOH or KOH) to produce glycerol and the salt of a fatty acid (soap).
Sardeshmukhi
/sɑːrˈdeɪʃmuːkiː/An additional levy of one-tenth (10%) of the revenue claimed by Shivaji and his successors over and above *chauth*, asserted on the basis of the Maratha ruler's position as *Sardeshmukh* (hereditary overlord) of Maharashtra.
Satrap
/ˈsætrəp/A provincial governor in the ancient Achaemenid (Persian) Empire, and by extension in successor Hellenistic and Indo-Scythian kingdoms that adopted the system.
Satyagraha
/ˌsʌt.jɑːˈɡrʌ.hə/A philosophy and practice of non-violent civil resistance developed by Mahatma Gandhi, in which protesters actively but peacefully refuse to comply with unjust laws while accepting the legal consequences.
Satyagraha Sabha
/ˌsʌt.jɑːˈɡrʌ.hə ˈsʌ.bʰɑː/An organisation founded by Mahatma Gandhi in February 1919 in Bombay to mobilise and coordinate mass non-violent resistance against the Rowlatt Act; members pledged to disobey laws they considered unjust while accepting the consequences of their defiance.
Schedule
/ˈʃɛdjuːl/ (British) or /ˈskɛdʒuːl/ (American)An appendix to the Constitution of India containing detailed provisions on specific subjects — such as allocation of Rajya Sabha seats, division of legislative powers, or anti-defection rules — that supplement the main Articles; the Constitution currently has 12 Schedules.
Script
/skrɪpt/A system of written characters or symbols used to represent a language visually; India uses numerous scripts including Devanagari, Tamil, Bengali, Gurmukhi, Odia, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and others, each associated with specific languages and regions.
Secular
/ˈsɛk.jʊ.lə/ (British), /ˈsɛk.jə.lɚ/ (American)Not connected with or controlled by any religion; in the Indian constitutional context, it means the state treats all religions with equal respect and maintains neutrality.
Secularism
/ˈsekjʊlərɪzəm/A principle of governance requiring the state to maintain neutrality towards all religions — neither promoting nor disfavouring any religion — and to protect individual freedom of conscience; in the Indian constitutional context, interpreted as *sarva dharma samabhāva* (equal respect for all religions) rather than the Western model of strict separation of church and state.
Secularism
/ˈsɛkjʊlərɪzəm/The principle that the state maintains equidistance from all religions, neither promoting nor suppressing any faith, while retaining the right to intervene in religious practices to uphold fundamental rights and social reform.
Sedition
/sɪˈdɪʃən/Organised incitement of rebellion or civil disorder against the authority of a state, typically through speech or writing, without amounting to open insurrection.
Seismic
/ˈsaɪz.mɪk/Relating to or caused by earthquakes or other vibrations of the Earth's crust, or more broadly, having a significant or far-reaching effect.
Seismic Zonation
/ˈsaɪzmɪk zoʊˈneɪʃən/The division of a region into zones of varying earthquake risk based on historical seismicity, tectonic setting, geological conditions, and probabilistic hazard analysis, used to determine building design codes and land-use planning standards for earthquake-resistant construction.
Semiconductor
/ˌsɛmikənˈdʌktər/A material whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor and an insulator, and which increases with temperature and the addition of impurities (doping).
Semiconductor
/ˌsɛmikənˈdʌktər/A material -- most commonly silicon -- whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass), and whose conductivity can be precisely controlled by adding impurities (doping), forming the physical basis of transistors, integrated circuits, and virtually all modern electronic devices.
Sepoy
/ˈsiːpɔɪ/A native Indian soldier serving in the army of a European colonial power, particularly the British East India Company and later the British Indian Army.
Sequestration
/ˌsiːkwɛˈstreɪʃən/The process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide, either through natural means such as forests and soils or through technological methods such as carbon capture and underground storage.
SEZ
/ˌɛs iː ˈzɛd/A Special Economic Zone is a geographically delimited area within a country where business and trade laws differ from the rest of the nation, offering incentives such as tax holidays, duty-free imports, and simplified regulatory clearances to attract investment and promote exports.
Shikhara
/ʃɪˈkɑːrə/The curvilinear or tapering tower that rises above the sanctum (garbhagriha) in North Indian (Nagara) temple architecture, serving as the most dominant and characteristic vertical element of the temple; sub-types include latina (curvilinear), phamsana (stepped pyramidal), and valabhi (wagon-vault).
Siliguri Corridor
/sɪˈlɪɡʊri ˈkɒrɪdɔːr/A narrow strip of land in northern West Bengal, only 20–22 km wide at its narrowest point, that serves as the sole terrestrial connection between mainland India and the eight northeastern states — bordered by Nepal to the west, Bangladesh to the south and east, and Bhutan and China's Chumbi Valley to the northeast, making it one of India's most strategically vulnerable geographic features.
Siltation
/sɪlˈteɪ.ʃən/The process by which fine sediment (silt) is deposited and accumulates in water bodies such as rivers, reservoirs, and dams, reducing their water-carrying or storage capacity and increasing flood risk.
Slum
/slʌm/A densely populated, deteriorated urban neighbourhood characterised by substandard housing, inadequate sanitation, and widespread poverty.
Social Audit
/ˈsəʊʃəl ˈɔːdɪt/A process by which a government programme or public expenditure is scrutinised and verified by the community it serves — typically through public hearings where beneficiaries, workers, and local officials compare official records with ground reality, leading to accountability and corrective action.
Socialistic
/ˌsəʊ.ʃəˈlɪs.tɪk/Having the characteristics of or tending towards socialism, particularly the advocacy of collective or state ownership and equitable distribution of resources.
Soft Power
/sɒft ˈpaʊ.ər/A concept in international relations, coined by Joseph Nye, referring to a country's ability to influence the preferences and behaviour of other international actors through attraction — based on the appeal of its culture, political values, and foreign policies — rather than through coercion (military force) or inducement (economic payment).
Sons-of-the-Soil
/sʌnz əv ðə sɔɪl/A nativist ideology asserting that people indigenous to a particular region should receive priority in employment, education, business licences, and political representation over migrants — even if the migrants are Indian citizens with constitutional rights to move and settle anywhere (Article 19(1)(e) and (g)); associated with sub-national identity movements and sometimes with regional parties.
Sovereign
/ˈsɒv.ɹɪn/ (British), /ˈsɑv.ɚn/ (American)Possessing supreme and independent political authority, free from external control or interference.
Sovereignty
/ˈsɒv.rən.ti/The supreme and independent authority of a state to govern itself without external interference.
Sovereignty
/ˈsɒvrənti/The supreme and independent authority of a state to govern itself without external interference.
Spectrum
/ˈspɛktrəm/The band of colours produced when white light is dispersed by a prism or diffraction grating, arranged by wavelength from violet to red.
Stakeholder
/ˈsteɪkˌhəʊl.dər/A person, group, or organisation with a legitimate interest in or who is affected by the decisions, actions, or outcomes of a particular activity, project, or policy.
Statelessness
/ˈsteɪtləsnəs/The condition of a person who is not considered a citizen or national by any state under the operation of its law — a situation that deprives individuals of legal protection, the right to work, access to healthcare, education, and freedom of movement.
Statutory
/ˈstætʃʊtəri/Established, required, or governed by an Act of Parliament or state legislature, as distinct from bodies created by the Constitution or by executive order.
Stealth
/stɛlθ/In military technology, the design philosophy and suite of techniques used to make aircraft, missiles, ships, or vehicles less detectable by radar, infrared sensors, and other surveillance systems.
Steatite
/ˈstiːətaɪt/A soft, dense variety of the mineral talc with a greasy or soapy feel, widely used in antiquity for carving seals, beads, and ornamental objects; also known as soapstone.
Stigma
/ˈstɪɡmə/A mark of social disgrace or disapproval attached to a person or group on account of a particular characteristic — such as caste, poverty, disability, or illness — leading to discrimination, exclusion, and diminished self-worth.
Stigma
/ˈstɪɡmə/A mark of disgrace or discredit associated with a particular characteristic, quality, or condition -- in the context of mental health, it refers to the negative attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination directed towards persons with mental illness, preventing them from seeking help and participating fully in society.
Stupa
/ˈstuːpə/A hemispherical domed structure in Buddhist architecture, built to enshrine sacred relics of the Buddha or venerated monks, and serving as a focal point for circumambulation, pilgrimage, and meditation.
Subduction
/səbˈdʌkʃən/The geological process in which one tectonic plate slides beneath another at a convergent plate boundary, descending into the mantle where it is recycled — creating deep ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and some of the world's most powerful earthquakes.
Subsidiarity
/ˌsʌbsɪˈdɪərɪti/The principle that decisions should be taken at the lowest possible level of government that is competent to handle them — only escalating to a higher level what cannot be adequately handled at a lower level; foundational to genuine decentralisation.
Subsidy
/ˈsʌbsɪdi/A financial benefit provided by the government to producers or consumers to reduce the market price of a good or service, promote a particular economic activity, or support vulnerable sections of the population — examples include food subsidies (through PDS), fertiliser subsidies, fuel subsidies, and interest subsidies on loans.
Subsidy
/ˈsʌbsɪdi/A direct financial contribution or tax benefit granted by a government to a domestic producer or exporter to support an economic or policy objective.
Subsidy
/ˈsʌbsɪdi/A direct financial payment, tax concession, or in-kind benefit provided by the government to individuals, households, or producers to make essential goods or services affordable, promote specific economic activities, or achieve social welfare objectives.
Subsistence
/səbˈsɪstəns/The condition of maintaining life at a minimum level, having just enough food, money, or resources to survive.
Subsistence
/səbˈsɪstəns/A mode of farming in which crops are grown and livestock are raised primarily to feed the farmer's own household rather than for sale or trade in the market.
Succession
/səkˈsɛʃən/The process or right by which one person follows another into an office, title, or position of power, especially a throne.
Sultanate
/ˈsʌl.tə.neɪt/A sovereign state or territory governed by a sultan, or the office and authority of a sultan.
Summit
/ˈsʌmɪt/A high-level meeting of heads of state or government convened to discuss and negotiate issues of international significance.
Suo Motu
/ˌsuː.əʊ ˈməʊ.tuː/A Latin term meaning "on its own motion," used when a court takes cognizance of a matter and initiates proceedings independently, without a formal petition or complaint from any party.
Supersonic
/ˌsuː.pəˈsɒn.ɪk/Travelling at a speed greater than the speed of sound in the same medium (approximately 343 metres per second or Mach 1 in air at sea level).
Surveillance
/sɜːˈveɪ.ləns/The systematic monitoring of persons, areas, or borders using visual, electronic, or technological means to detect and prevent security threats.
Swadeshi
/swəˈdeɪʃi/A policy of nationalist self-sufficiency in India, involving the promotion of indigenous production and the boycott of foreign (especially British) goods as a means of economic resistance against colonial rule.
Swaraj
/swəˈrɑːdʒ/Self-rule or self-governance; in the Indian independence movement, it referred both to political independence from British colonial rule and to Gandhi's broader vision of community-based self-governance and individual self-discipline.
Synapse
/ˈsɪnæps/The junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which electrical impulses are transmitted by chemical neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine.
Syncretism
/ˈsɪŋkrətɪzəm/The blending or reconciliation of different religious, cultural, or philosophical beliefs and practices into a unified system.
T
Tala
/ˈtɑːlə/A rhythmic cycle with a specific number of beats (ranging from 3 to 128) that recurs in the same pattern throughout a musical performance, providing the temporal framework within which melody and improvisation unfold in Indian classical music.
Targeting
/ˈtɑːrɡɪtɪŋ/The process of identifying and selecting specific individuals, households, or groups as intended recipients of a welfare scheme, using criteria such as income, occupation, geographic location, or social category to ensure benefits reach those most in need.
Tariff
/ˈtærɪf/A duty imposed by a national government on imported (or, less commonly, exported) goods, designed to raise revenue or protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
Telemedicine
/ˌtɛlɪˈmɛdɪsɪn/The delivery of healthcare services — consultation, diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring — remotely through telecommunications technology (video, audio, or text), enabling patients to access medical expertise without physical travel to a healthcare facility.
Terracotta
/ˌtɛrəˈkɒtə/A hard, unglazed, brownish-red ceramic material made from fired clay, used for pottery, figurines, building bricks, and decorative objects.
Thorium
/ˈθɔːɹiəm/A weakly radioactive, silvery-white metallic element (atomic number 90) found in monazite sands, which can be converted to fissile uranium-233 in a nuclear reactor and is the basis for Stage 3 of India's three-stage nuclear power programme.
Throughput
/ˈθruːpʊt/The rate at which goods, materials, or data are processed, moved, or produced through a system within a given period.
Titration
/taɪˈtreɪʃən/An analytical technique in which a solution of known concentration (titrant) is gradually added to a solution of unknown concentration until the reaction reaches completion, typically indicated by a colour change.
Totalitarian
/ˌtoʊtælɪˈtɛəriən/Relating to a system of government in which the state holds absolute control over all aspects of public and private life, permitting no rival loyalties or independent institutions.
Trafficking
/ˈtræfɪkɪŋ/The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons through the use of force, fraud, coercion, or deception for the purpose of exploitation -- including sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery, servitude, or the removal of organs.
Transgenic
/trænzˈdʒɛn.ɪk/Describing an organism whose genome has been altered by the introduction of one or more genes from a different species using genetic engineering techniques.
Transparency
/trænsˈpærənsi/The principle of openness in governance whereby information about government decisions, processes, and expenditure is freely accessible to public scrutiny.
Trench
/trɛntʃ/A long, narrow excavation dug in the ground by troops as a defensive position from which to fire upon the enemy — trench warfare became the defining feature of the Western Front in World War I.
Triage
/triːˈɑːʒ/The process of sorting and prioritising disaster victims or patients for treatment based on the urgency of their medical needs and the available resources, ensuring that those most likely to benefit receive care first.
Tribe
/traɪb/A social group comprising families or communities linked by common ancestry, culture, language, and territory, typically pre-dating the formation of modern states and often governed by customary law and traditional leadership.
Tribunal
/traɪˈbjuːnəl/A specialised judicial or quasi-judicial body established by statute to adjudicate disputes in specific areas such as administrative service matters, taxation, or environmental protection, supplementing but not substituting the jurisdiction of High Courts.
Tributary
/ˈtrɪbjʊtəri/A stream or river that flows into a larger river or lake, rather than directly into the sea.
Troll
/trəʊl/In internet usage, a person who deliberately posts inflammatory, provocative, or off-topic messages in online forums, social media, or comment sections to disrupt discussions, provoke emotional responses, or manipulate public discourse.
Tsunami
/tsuːˈnɑːmi/A series of ocean waves of extremely long wavelength caused by a large-scale, rapid displacement of water, typically triggered by submarine earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or underwater landslides, capable of devastating coastal areas far from the point of origin.
U
Ulema
/ˌuː.ləˈmɑː/The collective body of Muslim scholars and jurists who are recognised authorities on Islamic theology, sacred law (*Sharia*), and doctrine.
Ultra Vires
/ˌʌltrə ˈvaɪəriːz/Beyond the legal power or authority of a person, body, or institution — an act performed without lawful authority is deemed void.
Underground
/ˌʌndəˈɡraʊnd/Operating in secret, outside the established political or legal system; in the context of the Quit India Movement, refers to the clandestine network of leaders (such as Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali) who evaded arrest and coordinated resistance after the British imprisoned the entire Congress leadership.
Underwriting
/ˈʌn.dəˌɹaɪ.tɪŋ/The process by which a financial institution (bank, insurer, or investment house) assesses and assumes the risk of guaranteeing the sale of a securities issue or the coverage of an insurance policy, in exchange for a fee or premium.
Unification
/ˌjuːnɪfɪˈkeɪʃən/The process of being united or made into a single political entity, especially the merging of previously separate states or territories into one nation-state.
Untouchability
/ʌnˌtʌtʃəˈbɪlɪti/The practice of social discrimination — rooted in the Hindu caste system's concept of ritual pollution — by which certain groups (called *achhoots* or untouchables) were denied physical contact, access to public spaces, temples, water sources, and other social rights; abolished under Article 17 of the Constitution and criminalised by the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Upwelling
/ʌpˈwɛlɪŋ/An oceanographic phenomenon in which wind-driven currents displace warm surface water, causing cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean to rise to the surface, supporting highly productive marine ecosystems and major fisheries.
Urban Heat Island
/ˈɜːr.bən hiːt ˈaɪ.lənd/A metropolitan area that is significantly warmer (typically 2--8 degrees Celsius) than surrounding rural areas due to human activities and built environment — concrete, asphalt, reduced vegetation, waste heat from vehicles and industry, and dense construction all contribute to elevated temperatures.
Urbanisation
/ˌɜːbənaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process by which an increasing proportion of a population moves from rural areas to cities and towns, accompanied by the physical growth of urban areas.
Urbanisation
/ˌɜːrbənaɪˈzeɪʃən/The process by which an increasing proportion of a country's population comes to live in urban areas, driven by rural-to-urban migration, natural increase within cities, and the reclassification of rural areas as urban — accompanied by economic, social, and environmental transformation.
Utilitarianism
/juːˌtɪl.ɪˈteə.ri.ə.nɪ.zəm/An ethical theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number, evaluating conduct by its consequences in terms of overall happiness or welfare.
V
Valence
/ˈvæləns/The combining capacity of an atom, determined by the number of electrons it can lose, gain, or share when forming chemical bonds.
Vedic
/ˈveɪ.dɪk/Relating to the Vedas, the oldest body of religious literature in India, or to the historical period (c. 1500–600 BCE) in which they were composed.
Vernacular
/vəˈnækjʊlər/The native language or dialect of a specific region or country, as distinct from literary, cultured, or foreign languages; in colonial India, "vernacular" referred to Indian-language publications as opposed to English-language ones.
Vernacular
/vəˈnækjʊlə/The native language or dialect of a specific country or region, as distinct from a literary, classical, or official language; in the Indian context, vernacular languages refer to the regional languages spoken by ordinary people as opposed to Sanskrit, Persian, or English.
Vernacular
/vəˈnækjʊlə/The ordinary spoken language or dialect of a particular country or region, as distinct from a literary, classical, or foreign language; in colonial India, the term referred to Indian-language publications and education as opposed to English.
Veto
/ˈviː.təʊ/A constitutional right held by an authority to unilaterally reject or block a decision, law, or resolution, thereby preventing its enactment.
Vihara
/vɪˈhɑːrə/A Buddhist monastery consisting of a walled quadrangular courtyard flanked by small residential cells for monks, often with a central hall for communal activities.
Vote on Account
/voʊt ɒn əˈkaʊnt/An advance grant made under Article 116(1)(a) of the Constitution enabling the government to withdraw funds from the Consolidated Fund of India for a part of a financial year before the full Appropriation Bill is passed by Parliament, typically covering 2 months of estimated expenditure.
Vulnerability
/ˌvʌlnərəˈbɪləti/The conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors that increase the susceptibility of an individual, community, or system to the impacts of hazards.
Vulnerability Atlas
/ˌvʌlnərəˈbɪlɪti ˈætləs/A comprehensive cartographic document that maps the spatial distribution of natural hazard risks — earthquakes, cyclones, floods, landslides — across a country or region, using historical data, geological analysis, and remote sensing to assess the vulnerability of buildings, infrastructure, and populations.
W
Welfare State
/ˈwɛl.fɛər steɪt/A system of government in which the state protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens through policies based on equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to provide for themselves.
Wet-Bulb Temperature
/wɛt bʌlb ˈtɛm.prə.tʃər/The temperature measured by a thermometer wrapped in a water-soaked cloth over which air is passed, reflecting the combined effect of heat and humidity — it represents the lowest temperature achievable through evaporative cooling and is the key metric for assessing whether environmental conditions exceed the human body's ability to cool itself through sweating.
Whistleblower
/ˈwɪs.əlˌbləʊ.ər/A person who exposes information about wrongdoing, corruption, fraud, or illegal activity within an organisation to authorities or the public, often at personal risk.
Whistleblower
/ˈwɪsl.bləʊ.ər/A person who exposes information about illegal activity, wrongdoing, or misconduct within a public or private organisation, often at personal risk; in India protected under the Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2014.
Whistleblower
/ˈwɪsəlˌbloʊər/A person — often an employee or insider — who reports corruption, fraud, misuse of power, or other wrongdoing within a public or private organisation to the competent authority or to the public, at potential personal risk.
Writ
/rɪt/A formal written order issued by a court of law directing a person or authority to do or refrain from doing a specified act.
Z
Zamindari
/zəˈmiːndɑːri/A system of landholding and revenue collection in which zamindars (landlords) held proprietary rights over land and were responsible for paying a fixed revenue to the colonial government.
Zero-Based Budgeting
/ˈzɪərəʊ beɪst ˈbʌdʒɪtɪŋ/A budgeting approach in which every line of expenditure must be justified from scratch for each new budget cycle — starting from "zero base" rather than incrementally adjusting from the previous year's budget. Each programme, activity, or function must demonstrate its necessity and cost-effectiveness to receive funding.
Zoonosis
/zuːˈɒnəsɪs/ (plural: zoonoses)An infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to humans — approximately 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic, including COVID-19, Ebola, Nipah, rabies, and avian influenza; the increasing frequency of zoonotic spillovers is driven by deforestation, wildlife trade, intensive animal agriculture, and climate change.
