Note: This chapter was removed from the NCERT curriculum in the 2022 rationalization. Retained here as early medieval kingdoms — Rajput clans, Tripartite Struggle, Chola empire — are directly tested in UPSC GS1.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

Major Kingdoms 700–1200 CE

Kingdom Region Period Notable Rulers
Rashtrakutas Deccan (modern Karnataka/Maharashtra) 753–982 CE Dantidurga (founder), Amoghavarsha I (patron of literature)
Gurjara-Pratiharas North India (Rajasthan, UP) 750–1000 CE Bhoja/Mihira Bhoja I — literary patron; blocked Arab expansion
Palas Bengal and Bihar 750–1174 CE Dharmapala (founded Vikramashila university), Devapala
Cholas Tamil Nadu, parts of South India 850–1279 CE (medieval) Rajaraja I, Rajendra I — greatest rulers
Chandellas Bundelkhand (MP) 831–1308 CE Built Khajuraho temples
Paramaras Malwa (MP) 9th–14th CE Raja Bhoja — greatest patron of learning
Chahamanas/Chauhans Rajasthan 7th–12th CE Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan) — defeated Muhammad Ghori (1st Battle of Tarain 1191) then defeated (2nd Battle 1192)

The Tripartite Struggle

Party Kingdom Goal
Gurjara-Pratihara North India Control Kanauj (most prestigious city of northern India)
Rashtrakuta Deccan Control Kanauj — to claim pan-Indian supremacy
Pala Bengal/Bihar Control Kanauj — same reason

Result: All three weakened each other through 200 years of war (8th–10th centuries) → Created power vacuum that facilitated Ghaznavid and later Ghurid invasions.

PART 2 — Detailed Notes

Origins of Rajput Clans

Key Term

Rajputs: Warrior clans who dominated north and central India from roughly 7th–12th centuries CE. The term "Rajput" (from Sanskrit "Rajaputra" = son of a king) came to denote a social category of warriors.

Origin theories:

  1. Agnikula (Fire-born) theory: Some Rajput clans claimed descent from a fire-pit sacrifice at Mount Abu — a mythological legitimation of their status
  2. Central Asian origin: Some scholars suggest Rajput clans descended from Central Asian immigrants (Huns, Gurjaras) who assimilated into Indian society and adopted Hindu practices
  3. Indigenous origin: Many clans were local chieftains who rose to power and adopted Rajput identity

Key Rajput clans: Chahamanas (Ajmer, Rajasthan), Chandellas (Bundelkhand), Paramaras (Malwa), Caulukyas/Solankis (Gujarat), Tomars (Delhi), Kalachuris, Guhilas/Sisodias (Mewar — ancestors of the Sisodia Rajputs of Udaipur)

The Chola Empire — South India's Greatest

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS1 — Chola Empire:

The Cholas (850–1279 CE, medieval phase) built the most powerful empire in South Asian history during their peak.

Key rulers:

  • Vijayalaya Chola (~850 CE): Founded the medieval Chola dynasty; captured Thanjavur
  • Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE): Built the Brihadeeshwara Temple (Thanjavur/Tanjore); conquered Sri Lanka; extended empire to Maldives; reorganised naval power; one of India's greatest rulers
  • Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE): Son of Rajaraja; extended empire to Bengal (brought Ganga waters); sent famous naval expedition to Southeast Asia (Srivijaya empire, Sumatra) — first Indian ruler to conduct overseas military campaign at this scale

Administrative system:

  • Nadu system: Villages grouped into nadus (districts); nadus into larger units; highly decentralised
  • Village assemblies: Ur (common villagers), Sabha (Brahmin landowners), Nagaram (merchant guild) — elected assemblies managing local affairs; inscriptions record their debates and decisions — a form of local self-governance 1,000 years before the 73rd Amendment
  • Vellaikkaras: Royal bodyguards; elite warriors

Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur:

  • Built by Rajaraja I (1010 CE)
  • UNESCO World Heritage Site (Part of "Great Living Chola Temples")
  • Tallest temple vimana (tower) of its time
  • Bronze casting reached its peak — Nataraja (dancing Shiva) bronzes from Chola period are considered the finest Indian bronzes ever made

Naval power:

  • Cholas had a powerful navy — patrolled Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean
  • Rajendra I's expedition to Srivijaya (Sumatra, ~1025 CE) — disrupted Arab/Southeast Asian control of Strait of Malacca trade route; India's first overseas military operation in the historical record

Land Grants and Prashastis

Explainer

Land grants (Brahmadeya, Devadana): Kings granted land to Brahmins, temples, and monasteries — inscribed on copper plates.

Why they matter:

  • Major source of medieval history (dates, kings, genealogies)
  • Show how religion and politics intertwined — kings legitimised power through temple construction and Brahmin grants
  • Show how new settlements were created — grantees cleared forests, brought agriculture

Prashasti (eulogy): Inscribed praise-poems glorifying rulers — written in Sanskrit; found on temple walls and copper plates. Examples:

  • Allahabad Prashasti (Samudragupta, Gupta period): Composed by Harisena
  • Aihole Prashasti (Pulakesi II, Chalukya): Celebrated defeat of Harshavardhana

Critical reading of prashastis: They are propaganda — rulers made themselves sound like gods. Historians extract facts (names, dates, battles) while discounting the hyperbole.

Exam Strategy

Prelims traps:

  • Brihadeeshwara Temple = Rajaraja I (NOT Rajendra I — Rajendra built his own temple called Gangaikondacholapuram)
  • Rajendra I's naval expedition targeted Srivijaya (Sumatra) — NOT Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka was conquered by Rajaraja I)
  • Tripartite struggle was over Kanauj — NOT Delhi or Pataliputra
  • Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan): Won 1st Battle of Tarain (1191) against Muhammad Ghori; LOST 2nd Battle of Tarain (1192) — this ended Rajput dominance in North India

Previous Year Questions

Prelims:

  1. The Brihadeeshwara Temple at Thanjavur was built by:
    (a) Rajaraja I
    (b) Rajendra I
    (c) Kulottunga I
    (d) Vijayalaya

  2. Rajendra Chola's famous naval expedition (~1025 CE) was directed against:
    (a) Sri Lanka
    (b) Java
    (c) Srivijaya (Sumatra)
    (d) Arabia

  3. The Tripartite Struggle of the early medieval period was fought over control of:
    (a) Kanauj
    (b) Delhi
    (c) Pataliputra
    (d) Ujjain