The Making of Regional Cultures

Rajput cultural ideals:

Rajput society developed distinctive cultural values around martial heroism and loyalty to clan and king:

Chivalric code (Rajput dharma):

• Death in battle was the highest honour; retreat was shameful
• Jauhar: Mass self-immolation by Rajput women when a fort was about to fall — to avoid capture and dishonour (Chittorgarh: three jouhar events, 1303, 1535, 1568)
• Sati: Widow immolation — though controversial, it was practiced among elite Rajputs
• Saka: The last-stand battle where warriors fought to the death after their women performed jauhar

Rajput literature:

• Bardic tradition: Charans and Bhats (bards) recited heroic poetry (charan literature) praising the deeds of rulers
• Prithviraj Raso: Poem attributed to Chand Bardai (court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan) — describes Chauhan's exploits; written in an early form of Hindi; historical reliability disputed by historians

Rajput painting:

• Distinct from Mughal painting; more stylized, bolder colours
• Themes: Krishna's life (Bhagavata Purana), Ramayana, Ragamala (musical modes depicted visually), scenes of hunting and court life
• Schools: Mewar, Bundi, Kishangarh, Jodhpur — each with distinctive style
• Contrast with Mughal painting: Mughal = Persian-influenced, realistic, individual portraits, court scenes; Rajput = more symbolic/stylized, religious themes, brighter palette

Bengali literary tradition:

Bengal developed a rich vernacular literary culture — one of India's earliest regional languages to produce significant literature.

Charyapada (10th–12th century):

• Oldest known Bengali literature; Buddhist mystical songs
• Written in an early form of Bengali (scholars debate if it's more Assamese or Bengali)
• Found in a Nepali manuscript discovered in 1907 by Haraprasad Shastri

Mangalakavya (15th–18th century):

• Narrative poems glorifying local folk deities — Manasa (snake goddess), Chandi, Dharma Thakur
• Written in Bengali; served religious purposes but also recorded social life
• Example: Manasa Mangal — stories of the snake goddess Manasa and the merchant Chand Sadagar who refuses to worship her

Vaishnavism in Bengal:

• Chaitanya (16th century) transformed Bengali culture — intense Krishna devotion, kirtans, emotional bhakti
• Bishnupur (West Bengal): Centre of medieval Vaishnava culture; famous for Bishnupur terracotta temples (17th century) and Bishnupur gharana of dhrupad music

The Jagannath cult:

The Jagannath temple at Puri (Odisha) — one of India's most important religious sites — is connected to a distinctive cultural tradition.

Cultural significance:

• Jagannath (form of Vishnu/Krishna) is worshipped as the Lord of the Universe; crosses caste boundaries
• Rath Yatra: Annual chariot festival when the deity is brought out of the temple onto the public streets — remarkable because even untouchables could see the deity (unusual openness for the medieval period)
• The word "Juggernaut" in English derives from "Jagannath" — European travellers described the massive chariot and devotees throwing themselves under it (likely exaggerated accounts)

Odissi dance:

• Originated in the Jagannath temple devadasi tradition (Maharis — temple dancers)
• Ancient origins evidenced in Udayagiri cave sculptures (2nd century BCE)
• Formally recognised as classical dance in 1964

Odia literature:

• Sarala Das (14th–15th century): First major Odia literary figure; translated Mahabharata into Odia; "the Vyasa of Odia literature"
• Panchasakhas (5 Vaishnava poet-saints of Odisha): Similar to Bhakti saints elsewhere; 15th–16th century