Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Agriculture is the backbone of GS3. This chapter covers the full crop production cycle — from soil preparation to storage — and directly connects to fertilizer policy, irrigation schemes, organic farming, food security legislation, and India's flagship agricultural programmes tested repeatedly in Prelims and Mains.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

Crop Seasons in India

Season Period Major Crops Sown/Harvested
Kharif June – September Rice, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Soybean Sown: June (monsoon onset); Harvested: Sep–Oct
Rabi November – March Wheat, Barley, Gram (chickpea), Mustard, Peas Sown: Nov; Harvested: Mar–Apr
Zaid March – June Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Bitter gourd Short season between Rabi and Kharif

Irrigation Methods Compared

Method Mechanism Water Saving Best For
Dug wells / Tube wells Groundwater extraction Baseline Small farms; water-table areas
Canal irrigation River/dam water via channels Baseline River plains; large-scale farming
Tank irrigation Rainwater stored in tanks Moderate South India (Eri system, Tamil Nadu)
Sprinkler Water sprayed uniformly 20–30% Uneven terrain; vegetables; cereals
Drip irrigation Water at root zone via pipes 30–50% Orchards; horticulture; water-scarce areas

Fertilizers vs Manure

Parameter Chemical Fertilizer Manure / Compost
Source Synthetic (factory-made) Decomposed plant/animal waste
Nutrient release Quick/fast Slow and sustained
Soil texture Deteriorates over time Improves structure and water retention
Soil microorganisms Reduces diversity Enhances microbial activity
Examples Urea (N), DAP (N+P), MOP (K) Compost, Vermicompost, FYM
Environmental risk Eutrophication, groundwater contamination, soil acidification Negligible if well-composted

PART 2 — Detailed Notes

Agricultural Practices — The Full Cycle

The eight basic agricultural practices in sequence:

  1. Soil preparation — Ploughing/tilling loosens compacted soil, aerates it, and kills weeds; harrow breaks clods; leveller smooths the field for uniform water distribution
  2. Seed selection — Certified seeds (tested for germination, purity); high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds
  3. Sowing — Seed drill ensures seeds are sown at correct depth and spacing, reduces seed loss vs broadcast sowing
  4. Irrigation — Supplying water at right intervals
  5. Fertilizer/Manure application — Adding nutrients
  6. Weeding — Removing unwanted plants (weeds) that compete for nutrients, space, and light
  7. Harvesting — Cutting the mature crop; done manually (sickle) or mechanically (combine harvester)
  8. Storage — Preserving grains post-harvest to prevent pest damage and fungal spoilage
Key Term

Vermicompost: Compost produced by earthworms feeding on organic waste. Earthworm castings are rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Vermicompost improves soil aeration and water-holding capacity. It is a cornerstone of organic farming and is produced under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).

Manure Types

  • Compost: Decomposed farmyard waste, kitchen waste, crop residues
  • Vermicompost: Earthworm-processed organic matter — higher nutrient density than regular compost
  • Farm Yard Manure (FYM): Mixture of cattle dung, urine-soaked bedding, and crop residue
  • Green manure: Growing leguminous plants (e.g., sunhemp, dhaincha) and ploughing them back into soil — adds nitrogen naturally
UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Fertilizer Policy: India is the world's 3rd largest consumer of fertilizers at ~66 million tonnes/year (2022-23). Urea accounts for ~56% of total fertilizer use. The government provides a massive fertilizer subsidy — approximately ₹2.5 lakh crore in FY2023-24.

Nano Urea: Developed by IFFCO (Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative) in 2021. It is a liquid urea in nanoparticle form — one bottle replaces one bag of conventional urea, cutting transportation costs and GHG emissions. India has begun exporting Nano Urea.

Problem with overuse of chemical fertilizers:

  • Soil acidification and degradation
  • Eutrophication of water bodies (nitrogen/phosphorus runoff → algal blooms → oxygen depletion)
  • Groundwater contamination (nitrates in drinking water)
  • Long-term reduction in soil organic carbon

Weed Management

Weeds (e.g., wild oat, amaranthus, parthenium) compete with crops for water, nutrients, sunlight, and space. Control methods:

  • Mechanical: Khurpi (hand weeding), tilling between rows
  • Chemical: Herbicides/weedicides (e.g., 2,4-D for broadleaf weeds in wheat)
  • Biological: Introducing natural predators or pathogens of weeds (e.g., Zygogramma beetle against Parthenium hysterophorus — Congress Grass)
UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Organic Farming:

  • Sikkim became the world's first 100% organic state in 2016 — all agricultural land certified organic.
  • Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Central scheme promoting cluster-based organic farming. Farmers form groups of 50 in 50-acre clusters; supported for 3 years.
  • Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Developed by Subhash Palekar; based on cow dung/urine inputs (Jeevamrit, Bijamrit), no external inputs. Andhra Pradesh adopted it statewide (Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming — APCNF).
  • Natural Farming: Distinguished from ZBNF in some policy documents; PM Pranam scheme (2023) incentivises states to reduce fertilizer use.

Food Grain Storage

  • Post-harvest losses in India estimated at 10–16% of production (NHB/ICAR data)
  • FCI (Food Corporation of India): Manages central pool storage — approximately 80 million tonne capacity across silos, covered warehouses, and CAP (cover and plinth) storage
  • Hermetic storage bags (PICS bags): Airtight bags suffocate insects without pesticides — promoted under e-NAM ecosystem for small farmers
  • Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) and State Warehousing Corporations provide commercial storage
  • India's food grain production: 331.75 million tonnes in 2023-24 — a record high (DAC&FW data)
UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Food Security: National Food Security Act 2013 (NFSA): Covers 67% of India's population — 75% rural and 50% urban. Entitles beneficiaries to 5 kg of foodgrains per person per month at subsidised prices (rice ₹3/kg, wheat ₹2/kg, coarse cereals ₹1/kg). Expanded into free supply under PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY), made permanent from January 2024.

PM-KISAN: Direct income support of ₹6,000/year to eligible farmer families in 3 instalments — over 11 crore farmers enrolled.

e-NAM: Electronic National Agriculture Market — online trading platform for agricultural produce at APMCs; reduces intermediaries, improves price discovery.

PM Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): Crop insurance scheme; premium rates 1.5–2% for food crops; actuarial premium paid by government; over 5.5 crore farmer applications annually.

Soil Health Card Scheme: Issued to farmers with nutrient-status of their soil and recommended dosage of fertilizers — promotes rational fertilizer use.

Exam Strategy

Prelims traps:

  • Kharif crops are sown with monsoon onset (June), not harvested then — harvesting is September–October
  • Drip irrigation saves more water (30–50%) than sprinkler (20–30%) — do not confuse the figures
  • DAP = diammonium phosphate — provides both N and P, not just phosphorus
  • Vermicompost uses earthworms; compost uses microbial decomposition without earthworms
  • Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress Grass/Gajar Ghas) is an invasive weed — not a native crop pest
  • Sikkim = world's first fully organic state (2016) — not just India's first

Mains angles:

  • India's fertilizer subsidy vs soil health trade-off; PM Pranam scheme
  • Water crisis in agriculture — why drip/sprinkler adoption is slow (cost, awareness, electricity)
  • Organic farming as climate resilience strategy

Previous Year Questions

Prelims:

  1. With reference to Indian agriculture, which of the following is/are correct about drip irrigation?

    1. It can reduce water use by 30–50% compared to flood irrigation
    2. It is most suited for orchards and vegetables
      Select the correct answer using the code below:
      (a) 1 only
      (b) 2 only
      (c) Both 1 and 2
      (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  2. "Nano Urea" developed by IFFCO is significant because:
    (a) It replaces all types of chemical fertilizers
    (b) One bottle can replace one bag of conventional urea, reducing GHG emissions and transport costs
    (c) It is derived entirely from organic sources
    (d) It increases soil carbon sequestration directly

Mains:

  1. India's fertilizer subsidy regime, while ensuring food security, poses long-term risks to soil health and groundwater. Critically examine. Suggest policy reforms. (CSE Mains 2023, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)

  2. What are the main features of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)? How does it differ from conventional organic farming? Assess its potential and limitations for Indian agriculture. (CSE Mains 2019, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)