Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Natural resources are the backbone of GS3 Environment. This chapter maps directly onto: ozone depletion (Montreal Protocol), water pollution (Ganga, Namami Gange), soil erosion (ICAR data, soil health), forest cover (ISFR 2023, Forest Conservation Act), mineral wealth (critical minerals, deep-sea mining), and biodiversity loss (IPBES, Sixth Mass Extinction). Nearly every GS3 environment question touches resources covered here.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

Resource Type Examples Characteristic
Renewable Solar, wind, water, soil (slowly), forests, fisheries Replenish naturally (timescale varies)
Non-renewable Coal, petroleum, natural gas, most minerals Finite; formed over millions of years
Atmospheric Composition Percentage
Nitrogen (N₂) ~78%
Oxygen (O₂) ~21%
Argon (Ar) ~0.93%
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) ~0.04% (increasing; pre-industrial ~0.028%)
Water vapour (H₂O) Variable (0–4%)
Other trace gases < 0.01%
India's Forest & Biodiversity Data Figure / Source
Forest + tree cover 24.84% of India's area (ISFR 2023)
National Forest Policy 1988 target 33% of land area
Carbon sink capacity ~177 MT CO₂/year absorbed
Animal species in India ~91,000 species
Plant species in India ~45,000 species
Biodiversity hotspots in India 4 (Western Ghats + Sri Lanka; Indo-Burma; Himalaya; Sundaland part)
Soil erosion rate 5,334 MT/year (ICAR estimate)
Time to form 1 cm topsoil ~500 years

PART 2 — Detailed Notes

What Are Natural Resources?

Key Term

Natural resources are all the materials and energy sources found in nature that humans use for survival, economic activity, and well-being. They include air, water, soil, forests, wildlife, minerals, fossil fuels, solar energy, and wind.

Renewable resources replenish naturally — but some (soil, forests) replenish very slowly and can be permanently destroyed if overexploited. True renewables (solar, wind, tidal) are essentially inexhaustible on human timescales.

Non-renewable resources (coal, oil, natural gas, most minerals) were formed over millions of years through geological processes. Once extracted and used, they are effectively gone on human timescales. India is heavily dependent on fossil fuels (~55% of energy from coal).

Air — The Atmosphere as a Resource and Shield

Explainer

Functions of the atmosphere:

  1. Breathing: O₂ for respiration by all aerobic life.
  2. Photosynthesis raw material: CO₂ for plants.
  3. Temperature regulation: Greenhouse gases (CO₂, H₂O, CH₄, N₂O) trap heat — without them, Earth's average temperature would be −18°C (current ~15°C). But excess GHGs cause global warming.
  4. UV protection: Stratospheric ozone (O₃) layer (15–35 km altitude) absorbs harmful UV-B and UV-C radiation — protecting against skin cancer, eye damage, and crop failure.
  5. Meteorite shield: Friction burns up most small meteorites before they reach Earth's surface.
  6. Weather and water cycle driver: Atmospheric pressure gradients drive winds; moisture cycle drives rain.
UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Ozone Layer and Montreal Protocol

Ozone depletion: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs — used in refrigerants, aerosols) and halons (fire extinguishers) rise to the stratosphere, are broken down by UV radiation, and release free chlorine/bromine atoms that catalytically destroy O₃ molecules.

Ozone hole: Most severe over Antarctica (polar vortex traps ozone-depleting substances). First observed in 1985 by British Antarctic Survey. At its largest, covered an area larger than North America.

Montreal Protocol (1987): International treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances. Considered the most successful environmental treaty in history:

  • Universal ratification: 198 countries — only UN treaty to achieve this.
  • Kigali Amendment (2016): Extended to phase down HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons — CFC replacements that don't harm ozone but are potent greenhouse gases). India ratified the Kigali Amendment.
  • Ozone recovery: Expected to recover to pre-1980 levels by approximately 2066 over Antarctica (Arctic ozone recovery ~2045).
  • India's obligations: Phase-out of HCFCs by 2030 (Article 5 developing country schedule).

Water — India's Crisis

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Water Pollution in India

India treats only ~44% of its wastewater (Central Pollution Control Board, 2021 data). The rest flows untreated into rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

~70% of India's surface water is polluted (NITI Aayog). Major pollutants:

  • Domestic sewage: Single largest source; ~62,000 MLD generated nationally; treatment capacity ~26,869 MLD.
  • Industrial effluents: Textile dyeing (Tirupur, Ludhiana), tanneries (Kanpur — chromium pollution in Ganga), fertiliser plants.
  • Agricultural runoff: Pesticides, fertilisers (nitrate pollution of groundwater).

Ganga pollution: ~3,000 MLD of untreated sewage enters Ganga daily from 97 towns on its banks. Faecal coliform counts far exceed drinking water standards. Namami Gange Programme (2015, ₹20,000 crore) aims at:

  • Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) — real-time effluent monitoring.
  • Industrial effluent ZLD (zero liquid discharge) compliance.
  • Afforestation of Ganga banks.
  • Biodiversity conservation (Gangetic dolphin — National Aquatic Animal; River Ganga — National River).

India's rank: 13th most water-stressed country (WRI Aqueduct 2019).

Soil — The Fragile Foundation

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Environment & Agriculture: Soil Erosion and Conservation

Soil formation: Parent rock broken down by physical weathering (freeze-thaw, thermal expansion), chemical weathering (acid rain, oxidation), and biological weathering (plant roots, microorganisms) over thousands of years.

Critical fact for UPSC: Approximately 1 cm of topsoil takes ~500 years to form. This makes soil a practically non-renewable resource on human timescales.

India's soil erosion crisis:

  • India loses approximately 5,334 MT of soil per year (ICAR — Indian Council of Agricultural Research estimate).
  • Chambal ravines (MP/UP/Rajasthan): Among the worst examples of gully erosion in the world; ~4,000 sq km of ravines; historically associated with bandit/dacoit activity due to inaccessibility.
  • Rajasthan desertification: Thar Desert expanding due to overgrazing and deforestation; desertification also in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
  • Northeast India: Jhum (shifting) cultivation causing severe soil erosion on slopes.

Soil conservation measures:

  • Soil Health Card Scheme (2015): Test soil for 12 parameters; issue health cards to farmers; over 22 crore cards issued (2023).
  • Contour farming, terracing, windbreaks (agroforestry).
  • Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP): Rejuvenate watershed areas, reduce runoff, recharge groundwater.
  • PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: "Har Khet Ko Pani" + "More Crop Per Drop" — efficient irrigation reduces waterlogging and soil salinity.

Forests

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Forest Cover and Legal Framework

India's forest cover: 24.84% of India's geographical area (ISFR 2023 — India State of Forest Report, published by Forest Survey of India). Includes 21.76% forest cover + 3.08% tree cover (outside forests).

The National Forest Policy, 1988 targets 33% of land area under forest cover — not yet achieved in 35+ years.

Legal framework:

  • Indian Forest Act, 1927: Colonial-era; classifies forests as Reserved, Protected, Village forests.
  • Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (FCA): No diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes without central government approval — critical for protecting forests from infrastructure projects.
  • Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023: Controversial amendment; removes FCA protection from forest land within 100 km of international borders (for security infrastructure) and land not recorded as forest in government records — concerns that unrecorded community forests lose protection.

Forests as carbon sinks: India's forests absorb approximately 177 MT CO₂/year — critical to India's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) target under Paris Agreement of creating additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through additional forest/tree cover by 2030.

Minerals — India's Mineral Wealth

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Economy: India's Mineral Resources and Critical Minerals

India's mineral profile:

  • Produces ~95 minerals (4 fuel + 10 metallic + 23 non-metallic + others).
  • Iron ore: 4th largest reserves globally; major deposits in Odisha (Barbil-Barajamda), Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Goa.
  • Bauxite (aluminium ore): Largest reserves in Asia; Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand.
  • Coal: 5th largest reserves globally; Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, MP, Telangana.

Critical Minerals — strategic importance:

  • Lithium: Essential for EV batteries and energy storage. In February 2023, Geological Survey of India announced discovery of ~5.9 MT of lithium inferred resources in Salal-Haimana area, Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir — India's first significant domestic lithium find. Validation ongoing; commercial extraction requires further exploration.
  • Cobalt, Nickel, Rare Earth Elements (REEs): India has limited domestic reserves; mostly import-dependent (China dominates REE supply chain — ~60% of global REE production).
  • India's Critical Minerals List (2023): 30 minerals identified including lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, titanium, REEs — under Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2023.

Deep-sea minerals:

  • India has an Exclusive Mining Zone of 75,000 km² in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for polymetallic nodule exploration — awarded by the International Seabed Authority (ISBA, Kingston, Jamaica).
  • Nodules contain manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt — critical for batteries and electronics.
  • India's Blue Economy goal includes deep-sea mineral extraction under the Deep Ocean Mission (₹4,077 crore, 2021): develop submersible vehicles, deep-sea mining technology, deep-sea biodiversity assessment.

Biodiversity as Nature's Treasure

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Environment: Biodiversity Loss and the Sixth Mass Extinction

India's biodiversity:

  • ~91,000 animal species; ~45,000 plant species described.
  • 4 Biodiversity Hotspots: Western Ghats + Sri Lanka; Indo-Burma (Northeast India + SE Asia); Eastern Himalayas; Sundaland (India's Nicobar Islands).
  • Endemism: Western Ghats alone has 325+ endemic flowering plant species; ~500 endemic vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles, mammals).

Global biodiversity crisis:

  • IPBES Global Assessment (2019): Approximately 1 million animal and plant species face extinction — unprecedented in human history.
  • Current extinction rate: 100–1,000× the background (natural) rate — qualifying as the Sixth Mass Extinction (previous 5 were caused by asteroid impacts, volcanic eruptions, etc.; this one is human-caused = anthropogenic).
  • Primary drivers (IPBES): Land-use change (habitat destruction) > Direct exploitation (hunting/fishing) > Climate change > Pollution > Invasive species.

India's response:

  • Protected Area network: 106 National Parks, 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 97 Conservation Reserves, 4 Community Reserves (2023 data).
  • Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992), Project Lion (proposed), Project Dolphin (2020).
  • Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism; National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards, Biodiversity Management Committees.
  • Nagoya Protocol (2010): International ABS framework under CBD; India ratified 2012.

Exam Strategy

Prelims traps:

  • India's forest cover is 24.84% (ISFR 2023) — not 33% (that is the policy target).
  • Montreal Protocol (1987) targets ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, halons). Kigali Amendment (2016) targets HFCs (not ozone-depleting but climate-warming). Do not confuse.
  • Ozone layer is in the stratosphere (15–35 km altitude); smog ozone (ground-level O₃) is a pollutant.
  • India's lithium find is in Jammu and Kashmir (Reasi district, Salal-Haimana area) — not Rajasthan or Jharkhand.
  • IPBES is NOT the same as IPCC: IPBES = biodiversity (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services); IPCC = climate change.
  • Chambal ravines = gully erosion (not sheet erosion or wind erosion).
  • Deep-sea mining zone: India has 75,000 km² in Central Indian Ocean Basin (not Pacific, not Arabian Sea).

Mains angles:

  • Critical minerals — lithium, cobalt, REEs — for India's EV transition and energy security.
  • Forest Amendment Act 2023 — concerns about border area forest protection.
  • Biodiversity and Sixth Mass Extinction — India's PA network as response.
  • Soil health — erosion data, Soil Health Card Scheme.
  • Ozone and climate — Montreal Protocol as model for climate action.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims:

  1. With reference to India's forest cover, which of the following is correct as per ISFR 2023?
    (a) India has achieved the National Forest Policy 1988 target of 33%
    (b) India's total forest and tree cover is approximately 24.84% of its geographical area
    (c) Forest cover declined compared to ISFR 2021
    (d) India's forests are a net source of CO₂ emissions

  2. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol is related to the phase-down of:
    (a) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
    (b) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
    (c) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
    (d) Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆)

  3. Which of the following best describes India's Exclusive Mining Zone in the Central Indian Ocean Basin?
    (a) An area for oil and gas exploration
    (b) A marine protected area under International Seabed Authority
    (c) An area of 75,000 km² allocated for polymetallic nodule exploration
    (d) A fishing zone under UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Mains:

  1. "Soil is a non-renewable resource." Critically examine this statement in the context of India's soil erosion crisis and discuss the measures needed to ensure soil health and agricultural sustainability. (CSE Mains 2021, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)

  2. What are critical minerals? Discuss the significance of India's domestic lithium discovery for its energy transition goals and the challenges in translating mineral resources into strategic advantage. (CSE Mains 2023, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)