Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Grasslands are consistently tested in Prelims (ecosystem types, specific names, locations) and Mains (pastoralism, PESA, conservation-development conflicts). The Great Indian Bustard is a high-frequency species in Prelims. India's grassland policy deficit — receiving less protection than forests — is a critical GS3 environment topic.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

Table 1: World Grasslands — Types and Locations

Type Name Region Key Features
Tropical Savanna Africa (Serengeti), India, South America Seasonal rainfall; scattered trees; fire-adapted
Temperate Prairies North America (Great Plains, USA/Canada) Deep fertile soils; wheat/corn belt; cold winters
Temperate Steppes Central Asia (Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia) Very dry; low trees; Mongol nomads
Temperate Pampas South America (Argentina, Uruguay) Fertile; cattle ranching; gaucho culture
Temperate Veldt South Africa High plateau; acacia; Zulu and Sotho communities
Temperate Downs Australia (southeastern) Sheep farming; moderate rainfall
Cold Tundra Arctic (Alaska, Canada, Russia, Scandinavia) Permafrost; low shrubs; reindeer; very short summer

Table 2: India's Key Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland Location Key Species/Community Threat
Banni Grasslands Kutch, Gujarat (near Rann of Kutch) Maldhari pastoralists; Wild Ass; Flamingo Invasion by Prosopis juliflora (exotic weed); drought
Terai Grasslands UP, Uttarakhand, Bihar (Dudhwa, Chitwan belt) One-horned rhino, Swamp Deer (Barasingha), Tiger, Elephant Encroachment; agriculture; infrastructure
Deccan Plateau Grasslands Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana Great Indian Bustard (historic); Wolves; Blackbuck Agricultural conversion; solar farms
Shola Grasslands Western Ghats (Nilgiris, Munnar) Nilgiri Tahr; shola-grassland mosaic; Toda community Afforestation with exotic species (eucalyptus, acacia)
Bugyals (Alpine Meadows) Uttarakhand Himalayas (Auli, Bedni, Tungnath) Van Gujjars; Gaddis; Snow Leopard Overtourism; climate warming; snowline retreat

Table 3: Pastoral/Nomadic Communities — India and World

Community Region Animal Current Challenge
Maldhari / Rabari Gujarat (Banni, Kutch, Saurashtra) Buffalo, Cattle Land enclosures; grassland degradation
Van Gujjars UP Terai, Uttarakhand Buffalo Evictions from forest reserves; sedentarisation pressure
Gaddis Himachal Pradesh Sheep, Goat Climate change reduces alpine pastures
Bakarwals Jammu & Kashmir Goat, Sheep Forest laws; J&K UT reorganisation impacts
Dhangars Maharashtra Sheep Conflict with farmers over stubble grazing rights
Maasai Kenya and Tanzania Cattle Land enclosures; drought; tourism displaces grazing land
Mongols Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Horse, Yak, Camel Sedentarisation policy; urbanisation; dzud (winter disaster)

PART 2 — Detailed Notes

What Are Grasslands?

Key Term

Grassland: A biome dominated by grasses (Poaceae family) with few trees; found on every continent except Antarctica. Grasslands occupy approximately 40% of Earth's ice-free land surface and support some of the world's largest wild animal migrations. They are characterised by seasonal rainfall (too much for desert, too little for forest), periodic fire, and grazing pressure — all of which prevent tree establishment.

Grasslands have been called the "forgotten biome" because they receive far less conservation attention than forests or wetlands, despite their enormous biodiversity value and the billions of people who depend on them for pastoralism and agriculture.

Savanna — Tropical Grasslands

The Savanna is the iconic tropical grassland, covering much of sub-Saharan Africa (over 5 million km²). It is characterised by:

  • Seasonal rainfall pattern: Distinct wet season (high rainfall) and dry season (near-zero rainfall)
  • Characteristic vegetation: Acacia trees, baobab trees, tall elephant grass; vegetation adapted to fire and drought
  • Mega-fauna: African elephant, lion, leopard, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest, buffalo; annual wildebeest migration (Serengeti-Maasai Mara, Tanzania-Kenya) is the world's largest terrestrial wildlife migration (~1.5 million animals)
  • Fire ecology: Regular burning (natural and human-set) is essential to maintain savanna; fire prevents forest encroachment and recycles nutrients
Explainer

The Maasai of East Africa: The Maasai are semi-nomadic pastoralists of Kenya and Tanzania who have lived in the savanna for centuries, herding cattle as their primary livelihood. Cattle are central to their culture — wealth, bride price, ritual sacrifice. They traditionally moved with the seasons following grass and water.

Challenges today: Colonial-era and post-colonial land enclosures removed vast areas of traditional Maasai grazing land (including creation of game reserves like Serengeti and Maasai Mara — areas that were historically Maasai territory). Climate change has caused prolonged droughts, decimating cattle herds. Tourism-linked conservation projects often exclude Maasai from their ancestral land without meaningful compensation.

India's Grasslands — An Underprotected Biome

India has significant grassland ecosystems but a critical policy gap: the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and Forest Conservation Act 1980 prioritise forests. Grasslands are routinely classified as "wastelands" in government records, making them available for conversion to agriculture, plantations, and solar farms. Ironically, planting trees on grasslands counts as "afforestation" in government data — destroying the grassland ecosystem while claiming to create "forests."

Banni Grasslands (Gujarat): Located on the edge of the Rann of Kutch; one of Asia's largest dry grasslands (~2,500 km²). Home to the Maldhari pastoral community who herd buffalo and cattle. Invaded by Prosopis juliflora (mesquite, an exotic species introduced for "greening" in 1960s) which has taken over large areas, destroying the native grass ecosystem. Also critical habitat for the Wild Ass (Ghudkhur; India's only wild equid; Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary = Little Rann of Kutch) and migratory flamingos.

Terai Grasslands (UP/Uttarakhand/Bihar): Flood-plain grasslands of the Himalayan foothills; some of the world's tallest grasslands (elephant grass Saccharum spontaneum can reach 6-8 metres). Critical habitat for:

  • One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) — Dudhwa National Park (UP) has a small population; main population in Kaziranga (Assam)
  • Swamp Deer / Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli) — State Animal of Madhya Pradesh; Kanha NP has the southern subspecies; Dudhwa has the northern subspecies
  • Bengal Tiger (Dudhwa Tiger Reserve)

The Great Indian Bustard — A Conservation Crisis

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS3 — Critically Endangered Species and Conservation-Development Conflict:

The Great Indian Bustard (GIB) (Ardeotis nigriceps) is India's most endangered large bird. Population: approximately 100 individuals remaining (2023 estimates), making it critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.

State Bird of Rajasthan. Primary habitat: Desert National Park, Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) and grasslands of Gujarat.

Threats:

  1. Power line collision: GIB has poor frontal vision and cannot see overhead power lines; estimates suggest 15 birds die annually from collisions. This is the single biggest immediate threat.
  2. Habitat loss: Rajasthan's grasslands are being converted to solar and wind energy farms — a direct conflict between renewable energy targets and species survival.
  3. Historical hunting: GIB was hunted extensively pre-independence; hunting is now banned under Schedule I of Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (highest protection level).
  4. Agricultural expansion: Unirrigated grasslands converted to fields, especially after canal irrigation reached Rajasthan (Indira Gandhi Canal).

Supreme Court order (2021): Directed overhead power lines in GIB habitat areas in Rajasthan and Gujarat to be placed underground. Renewable energy companies challenged this, arguing it would cost thousands of crores and delay solar projects. The Court set up a committee. This case perfectly illustrates the conservation vs development conflict — India's renewable energy needs vs its biodiversity commitments.

Conservation measures: National Action Plan for Great Indian Bustard; captive breeding programme (CCMB, Hyderabad); field surveillance; community involvement through local grassland committees.

Pastoralism Under Stress

UPSC Connect

UPSC GS1 — Pastoralism, PESA, and Tribal Rights:

India's pastoral communities — Van Gujjars, Gaddis, Bakarwals, Maldharis, Dhangars — face three converging threats:

  1. Forest laws: Many traditional grazing routes and seasonal pastures have been declared Protected Areas or Reserved Forests, criminalising pastoral movement. Van Gujjars were evicted from Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand) in the 1990s in a controversial decision.

  2. Agricultural encroachment: Farmers have encroached on traditional pastoral commons (gauchars in Gujarat; oran in Rajasthan).

  3. Climate change: Irregular monsoons reduce grass availability; alpine snowlines retreating → reduced summer pastures for Gaddis and Bakarwals.

PESA Act 1996 (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas): Gives tribal gram sabhas power over natural resources including forest produce, minor minerals, and community grazing lands in Schedule V areas. Pastoral communities can use PESA to claim control over traditional grazing commons — but implementation is weak across states.

Forest Rights Act 2006: Recognises community forest rights including grazing rights (nistar rights) for communities who have traditionally used forest land. Critical for Van Gujjars, Bakarwals, and other pastoral forest-dwellers.

Climate Change and Grasslands

Explainer

Climate Threats to World Grasslands:

  • Savanna: More frequent and severe droughts (climate projections show 20-40% reduction in rainfall in parts of southern Africa by 2050); longer dry seasons threaten wildlife and Maasai livelihoods
  • Temperate grasslands: Warming and shifting rainfall patterns; US Prairies seeing more droughts (Dust Bowl conditions — 1930s; risk of recurrence with climate change)
  • Arctic Tundra: Permafrost thaw releases stored methane (a powerful greenhouse gas) — potentially creating a positive feedback loop accelerating global warming; reindeer herding communities (Sami in Scandinavia, Nenets in Russia) losing pastures as icy tundra becomes wet bog
  • India: Rajasthan grasslands becoming more arid; Northeast monsoon irregularities affecting Terai grasslands; alpine bugyals retreating as snowlines rise

Exam Strategy

Prelims traps:

  • Banni Grasslands are in Gujarat (Kutch district), not Rajasthan
  • Wild Ass Sanctuary (for Indian Wild Ass/Ghudkhur) = Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat — NOT the Banni grasslands
  • Great Indian Bustard = State Bird of Rajasthan (NOT Gujarat); listed under Schedule I of WPA 1972
  • Barasingha (Swamp Deer) = State Animal of Madhya Pradesh (not UP or Assam)
  • One-horned Rhino's primary population = Kaziranga (Assam); Dudhwa (UP) has a small reintroduced population
  • Veldt = South Africa (NOT South America); Pampas = South America; Downs = Australia
  • Savanna is a tropical grassland; Steppe is a temperate grassland
  • Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) is the invasive species devastating Banni grasslands — introduced originally as a "greening" measure

Mains angles:

  • India's policy gap: forests protected under law but grasslands treated as "wastelands" — consequences for biodiversity
  • GIB case study: renewable energy vs biodiversity (conservation-development conflict)
  • Pastoral communities and FRA 2006/PESA 1996 — rights vs conservation restrictions

Previous Year Questions

Prelims:

  1. With reference to the Great Indian Bustard, consider the following statements:

    1. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
    2. It is the State Bird of Gujarat.
    3. The Supreme Court in 2021 ordered underground power lines in its habitat areas.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
      (a) 1 and 2 only
      (b) 1 and 3 only (GIB is State Bird of Rajasthan, not Gujarat)
      (c) 2 and 3 only
      (d) 1, 2 and 3

  2. 'Banni grasslands' are located in which of the following states?
    (a) Gujarat
    (b) Rajasthan
    (c) Maharashtra
    (d) Madhya Pradesh

  3. Which of the following pairs of grassland names and their regions is/are correctly matched?

    1. Prairies — North America
    2. Pampas — South Africa
    3. Steppes — Central Asia
      Select the correct answer using the code below:
      (a) 1 and 2 only
      (b) 1 and 3 only (Pampas = South America, not South Africa; Veldt = South Africa)
      (c) 2 and 3 only
      (d) 1, 2 and 3

Mains:

  1. Discuss the conservation challenges posed by the grassland-solar energy conflict in India, with specific reference to the Great Indian Bustard. What policy solutions can balance renewable energy targets with biodiversity protection? (CSE Mains 2023, GS Paper 3, 15 marks)

  2. "India's pastoral communities are caught between forest conservation laws and agricultural expansion." Examine the role of PESA 1996 and the Forest Rights Act 2006 in addressing their concerns. (CSE Mains 2021, GS Paper 1, 15 marks)