Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Science and Technology is a direct GS3 component. Understanding the nature of science — its evolving character, the role of inquiry, and the interplay between science, technology, and society — is essential for framing answers on emerging technologies, India's science policy, and indigenisation initiatives. This chapter builds the foundational vocabulary for UPSC S&T questions.

PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables

Concept Definition Example
Science Systematic study of the natural world through observation and experimentation Discovery of penicillin by Fleming (1928)
Technology Application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes Solar panels, vaccines, smartphones
Scientific Method Observe → Question → Hypothesise → Experiment → Conclude Testing effect of fertiliser on crop yield
Observation Gathering data through senses or instruments Recording temperature daily
Hypothesis A testable explanation or prediction "More sunlight increases plant growth"
Experiment Controlled procedure to test a hypothesis Growing identical plants under different light conditions
Branch of Science Studies UPSC Relevance
Physics Matter, energy, forces, motion Nuclear energy, space tech, optics
Chemistry Composition and transformation of substances Fertilisers, medicines, pollution
Biology Living organisms Health policy, biodiversity, food security
Earth Science Earth's structure, atmosphere, oceans Climate change, natural disasters, water security
Astronomy Stars, planets, space ISRO missions, space policy, eclipses
Milestone in Indian Science Year Significance
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) founded 1969 Space technology for communication, weather, navigation
Chandrayaan-1 — water discovered on Moon 2008 First confirmation of water on lunar surface
Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission) 2013 India's first interplanetary mission; most cost-effective
Chandrayaan-3 soft landing (Vikram lander) 2023 India — 4th country to soft-land on Moon; 1st near south pole
Aditya-L1 launched 2023 India's first solar observatory at Lagrange Point L1

PART 2 — Detailed Notes

Key Term

Science is a dynamic, ever-evolving body of knowledge built through systematic observation, questioning, and experimentation. It is not a fixed collection of facts but a process of inquiry. The word "science" comes from the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge.

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to solve real-world problems. Science and technology are deeply interconnected — scientific discoveries lead to new technologies, and new technologies enable new scientific discoveries. Example: Discovery of electromagnetism (science) → electric motors and generators (technology).

Scientific Curiosity is the driving force behind all scientific progress. The ability to question "why" and "how" ordinary phenomena occur has led to path-breaking discoveries — from Newton's apple to Darwin's finches to Fleming's penicillin mould.

UPSC Connect

India's Science and Technology Policy Framework

India's National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP 2020) aims to position India among the top 3 scientific superpowers by 2030. Key pillars:

  • Decentralised science funding and evidence-based policymaking
  • Doubling public R&D investment
  • Making India a global hub for scientific talent

Key Government Initiatives:

  • National Research Foundation (NRF): Established under the Anusandhan National Research Foundation Act, 2023; seed fund of ₹50,000 crore over 5 years for funding research across Indian universities
  • Mission Innovation: India committed to doubling clean energy R&D investment
  • INSPIRE scheme: Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research — attracts talented students towards science
  • PM-PRANAM: Promotes alternative fertilisers, linking chemistry to sustainable agriculture
  • National Quantum Mission (2023–2031): ₹6,003 crore outlay; targets quantum computing, communication, sensing
Explainer

Why Science is "Ever-Evolving"

Science changes because new evidence can overturn old theories. Examples:

  1. Flat Earth → Spherical Earth: Ancient Greeks (Eratosthenes, ~240 BCE) calculated Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy
  2. Geocentric → Heliocentric: Copernicus (1543) replaced the Earth-centred model with a Sun-centred one
  3. Newtonian Mechanics → Quantum Mechanics: At sub-atomic scales, classical physics fails; quantum theory explains behaviour of electrons, photons
  4. Static Continents → Plate Tectonics: Wegener's continental drift hypothesis (1912) was rejected, but later confirmed by seafloor spreading evidence in the 1960s

Interdisciplinary Nature: Modern science rarely works in silos. Climate science combines physics, chemistry, biology, oceanography, and economics. ISRO missions require physics, materials science, computer science, and engineering. UPSC GS3 S&T questions frequently test this cross-cutting nature.

India's Ancient Scientific Heritage: India has a rich scientific tradition — Aryabhata (zero and heliocentric concept), Brahmagupta (algebra), Charaka and Sushruta (medicine), Varahamihira (astronomy). NEP 2020 promotes integration of this heritage with modern science education.

Exam Strategy

  • Science and Technology questions in Prelims often test applications — what a technology does, not just what it is. Learn the "so what" of each discovery.
  • Know ISRO mission timelines: Chandrayaan-1 (2008), Chandrayaan-2 (2019, orbiter still operational), Chandrayaan-3 (2023 — success), Aditya-L1 (2023).
  • National Research Foundation (NRF) — established under Anusandhan NRF Act, 2023 — frequently appears in current affairs questions. Know the funding model (70% from private sector, 30% government).
  • Do not confuse STIP 2020 (Science Technology Innovation Policy) with NEP 2020 (National Education Policy) — both released in 2020 but cover different domains.
  • The Scientific Method has a fixed sequence: Observation → Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analysis → Conclusion. CSAT reasoning questions sometimes test logical sequence.
  • Prelims trap: Chandrayaan-3's Vikram lander touched down near the lunar south pole — not the equator — making India the first to land near that region.

Previous Year Questions

Q1. With reference to India's achievements in space science and technology, which of the following statements is/are correct? (Prelims 2023)
(a) Chandrayaan-3 was India's first attempt to land on the Moon
(b) Aditya-L1 is placed at the Lagrange Point L1 between the Earth and the Sun
(c) ISRO was established in 1972
(d) The Mars Orbiter Mission was launched in 2015

(b) Aditya-L1 is placed at the Lagrange Point L1 between the Earth and the Sun

Q2. Consider the following statements about the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (NRF):

  1. It was established by an Act of Parliament in 2023.
  2. It will focus only on basic science research, not applied science.
  3. Its governing board is chaired by the Prime Minister.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (Prelims 2024 style)
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 1 and 3 only

Q3. The "Scientific Method" involves a series of steps. Which of the following is the correct sequence?
(a) Hypothesis → Observation → Experiment → Conclusion
(b) Observation → Hypothesis → Experiment → Conclusion
(c) Experiment → Observation → Hypothesis → Conclusion
(d) Conclusion → Hypothesis → Observation → Experiment

(b) Observation → Hypothesis → Experiment → Conclusion