Urbanisation & Smart Cities — Urban Growth, Challenges, AMRUT & Smart City Mission

Overview

Urbanisation is one of the most significant demographic and geographic transformations shaping India. As per the Census 2011, India's urban population stood at 377 million (31.16%) -- a sharp rise from 27.8% in 2001. Projections by the UN and various government bodies estimate that India's urban population will reach 40% by 2030 and could cross 50% by 2050, adding an estimated 300+ million urban residents.

This urbanisation presents both immense economic potential (cities contribute approximately 63% of India's GDP) and severe challenges -- slum proliferation, inadequate water supply and sanitation, traffic congestion, air pollution, and governance fragmentation. The policy response has been multi-pronged: the Smart Cities Mission (100 cities), AMRUT (500 cities), PMAY-Urban, SBM-Urban 2.0, and the constitutional framework under the 74th Amendment for urban local governance.

For UPSC, urbanisation is relevant across GS-1 (Human Geography), GS-2 (Governance, 74th Amendment), and GS-3 (Infrastructure, Planning). Questions test understanding of urban trends, challenges, governance structures, and the effectiveness of government missions.

Urbanisation Trends in India

Census Data: Key Numbers

Key observations:

• India's urbanisation rate (31.16% in 2011) is lower than the world average (~55% in 2025) and much lower than China (~65%), Brazil (~87%), or the USA (~83%)
• However, India's absolute urban population is among the largest globally -- nearly 400 million people lived in urban areas in 2011
• The urban growth rate exceeded rural growth rate for the first time during 2001-2011

Census Towns vs Statutory Towns

The rapid increase in Census Towns (from 1,362 in 2001 to 3,892 in 2011) is a critical UPSC point. It indicates that urbanisation is outpacing governance -- these settlements are functionally urban but governed by rural panchayats that lack the capacity or mandate to provide urban services.

Million-Plus Cities

• 53 cities had a population of 1 million or more (Census 2011)
• These cities account for approximately 43% of India's total urban population
• Top 3 by population: Greater Mumbai (~18.4 million), Delhi (~16.3 million), Bengaluru (~8.4 million)

Mega Cities

• Cities with population exceeding 10 million are classified as mega cities
• India had 3 mega cities in 2011: Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata
• By 2025 estimates, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Chennai are approaching or have crossed the 10-million threshold in their metropolitan areas

Concepts in Urban Geography

Urban Primacy

• When a single city dominates the urban hierarchy of a country, far exceeding the second-largest city (typically defined as the largest city being at least twice the size of the second)
• In India, urban primacy is less pronounced at the national level (multiple large cities) but exists at the state level -- e.g., Mumbai in Maharashtra, Chennai in Tamil Nadu, Hyderabad in Telangana

Counter-Urbanisation

• Movement of population from cities to rural or semi-rural areas, often driven by decongestion, remote work, or quality of life preferences
• Observed in Western countries since the 1970s; nascent trends in India, accelerated temporarily during COVID-19 pandemic
• Related concept: rurbanisation (development of rural areas with urban characteristics)

Peri-Urbanisation

• The transitional zone between urban and rural areas at the city periphery
• Characterised by: mixed land use (agricultural + residential + commercial), rapid land conversion, speculation, informal settlements
• In India, peri-urban areas often lack both rural and urban governance -- they fall outside municipal limits but have lost their rural character
• Key challenges: unplanned growth, lack of basic services, land-use conflicts, environmental degradation

Urban Sprawl

• Unplanned horizontal expansion of cities into surrounding areas
• Driven by: population growth, rising incomes, affordable peripheral land, automobile dependence
• Consequences: loss of agricultural land, increased commuting times, higher infrastructure costs, environmental degradation
• Indian cities like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune are textbook examples of urban sprawl

Urban Challenges in India

Slums

• Census 2011 recorded 65.49 million people living in slums across India (approximately 17.4% of urban population)
• 13.7 million slum households identified
• Dharavi in Mumbai is one of Asia's largest slums, housing an estimated 1 million residents in 2.1 sq km
• Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) schemes and in-situ redevelopment projects have had mixed results
• Root causes: rural-urban migration, high urban land prices, informal employment, inadequate affordable housing

Water Supply and Sanitation

• Only a fraction of Indian cities provide 24x7 water supply; most supply water for 2-4 hours per day
• Per capita water supply in many cities falls below the recommended 135 litres per capita per day (LPCD)
• Urban sewage generation: ~72,368 MLD; treatment capacity: ~26,665 MLD (only ~28% of sewage is treated)
• Open defecation has declined significantly under SBM but remains a challenge in urban peripheries

Urban Transport

• Rapid motorisation (vehicle ownership growing at 10-12% annually in many cities) without corresponding road expansion
• Traffic congestion costs Indian cities an estimated 1.5-2% of GDP annually
• Public transport modal share is low (except in a few cities with metro rail)
• Solutions: metro rail (1,090 km operational across 26 cities in 2025), BRT, RRTS (Namo Bharat), non-motorised transport infrastructure

Air Pollution

• Several Indian cities consistently rank among the world's most polluted (PM2.5)
• NCAP targets 131 non-attainment cities for 40% PM reduction by 2026
• Sources: vehicles, industry, construction, waste burning, domestic fuel combustion

Solid Waste Management

• Urban India generates an estimated 1.5 lakh tonnes of municipal solid waste per day
• Only 30-40% is processed scientifically; the rest goes to landfills or is dumped
• Legacy landfills (old dumpsites) are a major problem -- SBM-Urban 2.0 targets clearing approximately 2,400 legacy landfill sites

Smart Cities Mission

Overview

Two Components

Progress (as of March 2025)

Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs)

• All 100 Smart Cities now have fully operational ICCCs that use real-time data for decision-making
• Functions: traffic management, emergency response, surveillance, utility monitoring, citizen grievance handling
• During COVID-19, ICCCs were repurposed as pandemic response war rooms

Criticism and Challenges

• Only 18 of 100 cities declared full completion of all projects by the deadline
• Projects focused disproportionately on visible infrastructure (roads, parks) rather than transformative smart solutions
• Area-Based Development benefited limited geographical pockets rather than the entire city
• Limited community participation in project design
• Post-mission sustainability of ICCCs and smart infrastructure remains uncertain

AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation)

AMRUT 1.0 (2015-2021)

AMRUT 2.0 (2021-2026)

Key Difference: AMRUT 1.0 vs 2.0

SBM-Urban 2.0 (Swachh Bharat Mission -- Urban)

Overview

Key Objectives of 2.0

Star Rating Protocol for Garbage-Free Cities

• MOHUA awards 1-star to 7-star ratings based on parameters: door-to-door collection, source segregation, processing, scientific disposal
• Incentivises competitive improvement among ULBs

PMAY-Urban (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana -- Urban)

Overview

Four Verticals

PMAY-Urban 2.0

• Extended with additional allocation to bridge remaining housing demand
• Focus on completing sanctioned but incomplete houses
• Technology-driven construction: promotes prefabricated and 3D-printed housing in select projects

Urban Governance — 74th Constitutional Amendment

Background

The Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992 (came into force on 1 June 1993) added Part IXA (Articles 243P to 243ZG) to the Constitution, providing constitutional status to urban local bodies.

Key Provisions

District Planning Committee (DPC)

• Constituted in every district to consolidate plans prepared by Panchayats and Municipalities
• Prepares a draft development plan for the district as a whole
• At least four-fifths of members elected from among elected members of Panchayats/municipalities in proportion to urban-rural population ratio

Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC)

• Constituted for every metropolitan area (population of 10 lakh or more)
• Prepares a draft development plan for the metropolitan area as a whole
• At least two-thirds of members elected from among elected members of municipalities and Panchayats in the metropolitan area

Implementation Gaps

• Many states have not effectively devolved all 18 functions listed in the 12th Schedule to ULBs
• ULBs remain financially weak -- own revenue (property tax, user charges) covers only 30-50% of expenditure; rest depends on state/central grants
• Parastatals (development authorities, water boards, housing boards) often control key functions, undermining municipal authority
• DPCs and MPCs have been constituted in most states but function weakly in many
• Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC) recommended giving ULBs genuine functional and financial autonomy

Urban Planning — Master Plans and TOD

Master Plans

• The Town and Country Planning Acts (state-level legislation) mandate preparation of Master Plans/Development Plans for cities
• Master Plans typically cover a 20-year horizon and prescribe: land-use zoning (residential, commercial, industrial, green), FAR (Floor Area Ratio), building regulations, transport networks, and infrastructure
• Delhi Master Plan 2041 (notified 2021) emphasises transit-oriented development, mixed land use, and green development

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

• Promotes high-density, mixed-use development within 500-800 metres of transit stations (metro, BRT, RRTS)
• Benefits: reduces automobile dependence, improves public transport ridership, efficient land use, lower per-capita emissions
• Delhi, Bengaluru, and Ahmedabad have incorporated TOD principles in their planning frameworks
• TOD zones typically allow higher FAR than surrounding areas to incentivise development near transit

National Urban Planning Framework (NUPF)

• Released by MoHUA to guide states and cities in preparing comprehensive, inclusive, and sustainable urban plans
• Emphasises: data-driven planning, citizen participation, climate resilience, and integration of urban and regional planning

Key Comparisons for UPSC

Smart Cities Mission vs AMRUT

Census Town vs Statutory Town

Exam Strategy and Previous Year Relevance

Urbanisation is a cross-cutting topic that appears across all GS papers.

GS-1 (Geography): Urbanisation trends, Census data, urban primacy, counter-urbanisation, million-plus cities.

GS-2 (Governance): 74th Amendment, DPC/MPC, devolution of functions, urban governance challenges, parastatals vs elected bodies.

GS-3 (Infrastructure): Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT, SBM-Urban, PMAY-Urban, urban transport.

Prelims focus areas:

• Urban percentage from Census 2011 (31.16%)
• Census town definition and count
• Smart Cities Mission -- number of cities (100), launch year (2015), conclusion (March 2025)
• AMRUT 2.0 -- coverage (4,378 towns), water focus
• 74th Amendment -- year (1992), 12th Schedule (18 functions), Ward Committee threshold (3 lakh)
• DPC and MPC provisions
• SBM-Urban 2.0 targets

Mains question patterns:

• "Discuss the challenges of urbanisation in India. How effective have government missions like AMRUT and Smart Cities been in addressing them?" (GS-1/GS-3)
• "Census Towns represent a governance vacuum. Discuss the phenomenon with examples." (GS-1)
• "Critically examine the implementation of the 74th Amendment. Why have urban local bodies failed to achieve genuine self-governance?" (GS-2)
• "What is Transit-Oriented Development? Discuss its relevance for Indian cities." (GS-3)

Key tip: For urbanisation answers in Mains, always ground your response in data (Census numbers, scheme targets) and connect challenges to solutions. Avoid generic statements -- examiners reward specific knowledge of governance structures and mission outcomes.

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