Political Parties, Pressure Groups & Representative Democracy in India

Political parties and pressure groups are the twin pillars of representative democracy. While political parties seek to capture state power through electoral competition, pressure groups seek to influence state decisions without directly contesting elections. Together they constitute the articulation machinery of democratic politics.

Political Parties: Definition and Functions

A political party is a voluntary association of people who share common political beliefs and work together to win elections, form governments, and implement their policies.

Functions in democracy:

• Contest elections and form governments
• Aggregate and articulate public interests
• Political socialisation and public education
• Provide loyal opposition and accountability
• Link citizens to the state (intermediary function)
• Recruit and train political leadership

ECI Recognition: National and State Parties

The Election Commission of India (ECI) grants formal recognition under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968. Recognition determines entitlement to reserved election symbols and free broadcast time.

National Party Recognition Criteria (any one of the following)

Current National Parties (as of March 2024)

As per the ECI's published list dated 23 March 2024, India has 6 recognised National Parties:

Note: In April 2023, the ECI revoked the national party status of TMC (Trinamool Congress), NCP (Nationalist Congress Party), and CPI (Communist Party of India). AAP was elevated to national party status in 2023.

State Party Recognition Criteria

A party is recognised as a State Party in a state if it fulfils any one condition:

• Gets at least 6% of valid votes in a state election and wins at least 2 Assembly seats in that state
• Wins at least 3% of total seats in the state legislature (minimum 3 seats)
• Wins at least 1 Lok Sabha seat for every 25 Lok Sabha seats allotted from that state
• Gets at least 8% of valid votes in a general election (Lok Sabha or Assembly) in that state

India's Multiparty System

India operates a multiparty system reflecting its social, linguistic, regional, and ideological diversity.

Challenges of India's multiparty system: coalition instability, horse-trading, regional parties with disproportionate influence, personality-based parties with weak ideology.

Inner-Party Democracy and Its Absence

India's political parties suffer from weak inner-party democracy. The Law Commission's 255th Report (2015) noted that most parties are controlled by families or central high commands. The ECI has limited powers to enforce internal elections as parties are not subject to RTI.

Concerns include:

• Dynastic control (Gandhi family in INC, Yadav families in SP/RJD)
• Party funds not transparently audited
• Candidate selection centralised, not democratised

Electoral Funding and Reforms

Electoral Bonds: Struck Down (February 2024)

The Electoral Bond Scheme (introduced January 2018) allowed companies and individuals to purchase bearer bonds from SBI and donate anonymously to political parties. The scheme was challenged for violating voters' right to information.

On 15 February 2024, a five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court (Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud) unanimously struck down the Electoral Bond Scheme as unconstitutional, holding that it:

• Violated Article 19(1)(a) — right to information (voters' right to know political funding sources)
• Was disproportionate: anonymity favoured quid-pro-quo corporate donations
• The Court directed SBI to submit data to ECI, which was then published

Other electoral finance rules:

• Individual/company donations above ₹20,000 must be disclosed in party accounts
• Corporate donations capped at 7.5% of net average profits of last 3 years (Companies Act 2013)
• State funding of elections — debate ongoing; Second ARC recommended state funding
• FCRA restrictions: Foreign contributions to political parties are prohibited under FCRA, 2010

Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule)

The Anti-Defection Law was introduced by the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985, inserting the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution. Its object was to curb political defections that caused governmental instability.

Grounds for Disqualification

A member of Parliament or State Legislature is disqualified if:

1. Voluntarily gives up membership of the political party on whose ticket they were elected
2. Votes or abstains from voting contrary to the direction of their party (whip)
3. An independently elected member joins any political party after election
4. A nominated member joins any party after 6 months from taking seat

Exceptions (Mergers)

Disqualification does NOT apply if at least two-thirds of members of the legislature party merge with another party. (Originally, the "one-third split" provision was there — removed by 91st Amendment, 2003.)

Role of the Speaker and Judicial Review

• The Speaker/Chairman of the House is the adjudicating authority
• In Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992), the Supreme Court upheld the Tenth Schedule but declared the finality clause unconstitutional — Speaker's decisions are subject to judicial review on grounds of malafides and perversity
• Courts cannot intervene before the Speaker pronounces a decision (interim bar)
• Criticism: Speaker acts as judge in own cause; can be biased towards ruling party

91st Amendment (2003): Strengthened anti-defection — disqualified members cannot be appointed as Ministers for the remainder of the term.

Pressure Groups: Definition and Types

A pressure group (also called an interest group) is an organised group that seeks to influence government policy or legislation without seeking to form the government itself.

Classification

Sectional (Interest) Groups — represent a particular section of society:

Promotional (Issue/Cause) Groups — promote a cause or value rather than a sectional interest:

Methods Used by Pressure Groups

NGOs as Pressure Groups

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) occupy a hybrid space — they deliver services like pressure groups but also advocate for policy change. Examples: Amnesty International India, CRY, Pratham.

FCRA 2010 regulates foreign funding to NGOs — concerns about foreign-funded NGOs influencing domestic policy have led to several organisations losing FCRA registration.

Distinction: Political Parties vs Pressure Groups

India vs USA vs UK: Pressure Group Regulation

Exam Strategy

For Prelims:

• Current national parties list (6 as of March 2024: BJP, INC, AAP, BSP, CPI-M, NPP)
• ECI recognition criteria — exact numbers (6% + 4 seats, or 2%, or 4-state recognition)
• 10th Schedule → 52nd Amendment, 1985; 91st Amendment, 2003 removed 1/3 split
• Electoral Bond Scheme struck down: 15 February 2024, Article 19(1)(a)
• Kihoto Hollohan case (1992) — Speaker's decisions subject to judicial review

For Mains (GS2):

• Inner-party democracy — why important, what reforms needed (Law Commission, Second ARC)
• Electoral funding reforms — post-Electoral Bond judgment, what next? State funding debate
• Pressure groups' role: legitimate intermediaries vs threats to policy (foreign-funded NGOs angle)
• Distinguish between pressure groups and political parties with Indian examples

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

1. Which of the following is the criterion for recognition of a political party as a National Party? (UPSC 2014) — 6% of valid votes + 4 LS seats in 4 states, or 2% LS seats from 3 states
2. The Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with: — Anti-defection provisions
3. With reference to the Election Commission of India, which of the following is/are its functions? (UPSC 2017)
4. The Electoral Bond Scheme was struck down by the Supreme Court in February 2024 on the grounds of violating: — Article 19(1)(a)

Mains

1. "The Anti-Defection Law has curtailed floor crossing but has made legislators slaves of the party whip." Critically examine with reference to inner-party democracy and judicial oversight. (GS2, 250 words)
2. What are pressure groups? Distinguish between sectional and promotional pressure groups with Indian examples. How do they influence public policy? (GS2, 150 words)
3. Examine the role of money power in elections in India. What reforms have been suggested to ensure cleaner electoral financing? (GS2, 250 words) — Relevant after Electoral Bond judgment