Introduction

India's space programme, one of the most ambitious among developing nations, has evolved from a humble sounding rocket in 1963 to landing a spacecraft near the Moon's south pole in 2023. Space is no longer merely a prestige endeavour — it underpins national security, agriculture, weather forecasting, navigation, disaster management, and is now a fast-growing economic sector. India's civil space economy is projected to grow significantly, enabled by the Indian Space Policy 2023 which opened the sector to private enterprise.

ISRO: Institutional Overview

Feature Details
Full name Indian Space Research Organisation
Established August 15, 1969
Predecessor INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research), 1962
Father of Indian Space Programme Dr. Vikram Sarabhai
Current administrative home Department of Space (DoS), under PMO
Headquarters Bengaluru, Karnataka
Major launch site Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh

Vikram Sarabhai's Vision

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai articulated the rationale for India's space programme not in terms of military competition but as a tool for development: using space technology to solve problems of rural poverty, agriculture, health, and education. This developmental vision distinguishes ISRO's origins from the Cold War space race.

Major ISRO Missions

Chandrayaan Programme (Lunar)

Mission Launch Key Achievement
Chandrayaan-1 October 22, 2008 India's first lunar mission; M3 payload confirmed water molecules on Moon; operated for 312 days
Chandrayaan-2 July 22, 2019 Orbiter successful (still operational); Vikram lander crashed during descent in September 2019
Chandrayaan-3 July 14, 2023 Vikram lander soft-landed near lunar south pole on August 23, 2023; India became 4th nation to achieve lunar soft-landing and first to land near south pole

Chandrayaan-3 significance:

  • Lander: Vikram; Rover: Pragyan
  • Landing site designated Shiv Shakti Point by ISRO
  • Landing date (August 23) declared National Space Day
  • Pragyan Rover confirmed presence of sulphur and other elements near south pole
  • Mission conducted at fraction of cost of comparable NASA/ESA missions

Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission)

  • Launched: November 5, 2013; Mars orbit inserted: September 24, 2014
  • India became first Asian nation to reach Mars and first nation to succeed on maiden attempt
  • Cost: ~₹450 crore (cheaper than many Hollywood space movies)
  • Mission ended: October 2022 (battery failure after 8 years)

Aditya-L1 (Solar Mission)

  • Launched: September 2, 2023
  • India's first solar observatory in space
  • Placed at Lagrange Point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system — approximately 1.5 million km from Earth
  • L1 allows continuous, unobstructed view of the Sun
  • Payloads study solar corona, solar wind, solar flares, Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
  • Significance: CMEs affect satellite communications, power grids, GPS

Gaganyaan (Human Spaceflight Programme)

  • India's first crewed spaceflight mission
  • Mission: Send 3 astronauts to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for 3 days, then safe ocean recovery
  • Test Vehicle Demonstration (TV-D1): October 2023 — crew escape system tested successfully
  • G1 (uncrewed, with Vyommitra half-humanoid robot): Scheduled 2026
  • H1 (crewed): Projected first quarter 2027 (delayed from earlier 2025 target)
  • Crew selected (February 2024): Gp Capt Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Gp Capt Ajit Krishnan, Gp Capt Angad Pratap, Wg Cdr Shubhanshu Shukla (all IAF test pilots)
  • Training: At ISRO's astronaut training facility in Bengaluru and Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre, Russia

Launch Vehicles

Vehicle Class Key Use
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) ~1,750 kg to SSO Workhorse of ISRO; 60+ successful launches; Chandrayaan-1, Mangalyaan, Aditya-L1 launched by PSLV variants
GSLV Mk II ~2,500 kg to GTO Communication satellites; uses indigenous cryogenic engine
GSLV Mk III / LVM3 ~4,000 kg to GTO / ~10,000 kg to LEO Chandrayaan-3, Gaganyaan, OneWeb constellation commercial launches
SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle) ~500 kg to LEO Small satellite market; quick launch within days
NGLV (Next Generation Launch Vehicle) Heavy-lift (under development) Future large missions; reusable; replaces LVM3 long-term

PSLV variants:

  • PSLV-G (standard), PSLV-CA (Core Alone — no strap-on boosters), PSLV-XL (6 strap-ons), PSLV-DL (2 strap-ons)

Indian Space Policy 2023

Background

Approved by the Cabinet on April 6, 2023, the Indian Space Policy 2023 is India's first comprehensive civil space policy. It defines clear institutional roles and opens the space sector to non-governmental entities (NGEs).

Institutional Framework Under Space Policy 2023

Entity Role
Department of Space (DoS) Policy direction; ISRO falls under DoS
ISRO R&D of advanced space technology; human spaceflight; planetary exploration; technology demonstrators
IN-SPACe Single-window regulator and promoter for private sector (NGEs); authorises and supervises activities
NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) Commercial PSU; manufactures/procures/leases launch vehicles and satellites; transfers ISRO technology to industry

IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre)

  • Set up in June 2020 (before the Space Policy; confirmed by it)
  • Autonomous agency under Department of Space
  • Provides shared launch facilities to private entities
  • Authorises satellite constellations, launch vehicle development by NGEs
  • Facilitates technology transfer from ISRO to private companies

Private Sector Players

Company Achievement
Skyroot Aerospace Launched Vikram-S (India's first private rocket) in November 2022
Agnikul Cosmos Launched Agnibaan SOrTeD — world's first rocket with a 3D-printed semi-cryogenic engine — May 2024
Pixxel Startup building hyperspectral Earth observation constellation
Dhruva Space Satellite deployment; space-tech services

Space-Based Applications

Navigation: NavIC

  • NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) — India's independent regional navigation satellite system
  • Also called IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System)
  • Constellation: 7 satellites (3 Geostationary + 4 Geosynchronous)
  • Coverage: India and ~1,500 km around it
  • Accuracy: Better than 10 metres within India; 20 m in extended coverage area
  • Frequencies: L5 and S band (dual frequency — better accuracy, ionospheric correction)
  • Status (March 2026): Atomic clock failures in first-generation satellites; only 3 providing full navigation data — operational below ideal minimum of 4; second-generation NavIC constellation under development
  • Applications: Fishermen safety (vessel tracking), disaster management, vehicle tracking, precision agriculture, defence

Remote Sensing: Cartosat & Resourcesat

Satellite Purpose
Cartosat series High-resolution cartographic mapping; defence; urban planning
Resourcesat series Crop monitoring, flood mapping, land use
RISAT series Radar imaging; all-weather, day-night surveillance
EOS series Earth Observation Satellites (renamed series)

Communication: GSAT & INSAT

  • INSAT-3DS (2024): Advanced weather satellite; improves cyclone, flood prediction
  • GSAT series: Broadband, DTH, VSAT services
  • One Web constellation launches: LVM3 commercially launched 36 OneWeb satellites in 2023 — marks India's entry into commercial heavy-lift launches

International Space Law

Outer Space Treaty (OST), 1967

The constitution of outer space law. Opened for signature on January 27, 1967; entered into force October 10, 1967. India is a signatory.

Key principles:

Principle Article
Space is the "province of all mankind" — freedom of exploration and use Article I
No national appropriation of outer space or celestial bodies by claim of sovereignty Article II
States bear international responsibility for national space activities (including private sector) Article VI
States are liable for damage caused by their space objects Article VII
Prohibition of nuclear weapons and WMD in space; celestial bodies used for peaceful purposes only Article IV
Astronauts are "envoys of mankind"; mutual assistance obligation Article V
Consultation before activities potentially harmful to other states Article IX

Other Key Treaties

Treaty Year Key Provisions
Rescue Agreement 1968 Assistance to astronauts in distress; prompt return to launching state
Liability Convention 1972 Launching state absolutely liable for damage on Earth's surface; fault-based liability for damage in space
Registration Convention 1976 States must register space objects with UN Secretary-General
Moon Agreement 1979 Declares Moon a "Common Heritage of Mankind"; bans resource exploitation without international regime — NOT signed by major space powers (USA, Russia, China, India)

Artemis Accords (2020)

  • US-led set of non-binding bilateral principles for lunar exploration based on OST
  • India signed on June 21, 2023 (27th signatory; PM Modi's US visit)
  • Key principles: transparency, interoperability, deconfliction of activities, registration, release of scientific data, protection of heritage sites, sustainable resource utilisation
  • Criticism: Some argue Accords favour US commercial interests; China and Russia have not signed

ASAT Test: Mission Shakti (2019)

  • India conducted an Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile test on March 27, 2019
  • Code-named Mission Shakti; announced by PM Modi
  • India became 4th nation with ASAT capability (after USA, Russia, China)
  • Target: India's own satellite (Microsat-R) in Low Earth Orbit (~283 km)
  • Low altitude chosen to minimise debris — most debris expected to re-enter within weeks
  • Significance: Demonstrates India's space-based deterrence capability; critical for future military space assets
  • Debate: Raised concerns about space weaponisation despite India's "responsible actor" framing

Space Debris

Metric Data
Tracked debris objects Over 27,000+ (size > 10 cm)
Estimated total fragments Millions (including untracked smaller fragments)
Causes Defunct satellites, rocket bodies, ASAT test debris, collisions
Critical zones LEO (400–2,000 km) and GEO (36,000 km)
Kessler Syndrome Theoretical cascade of collisions making LEO unusable

Mitigation Measures

  • IADC Guidelines (Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee): 25-year de-orbit rule for LEO; graveyard orbit for GEO
  • UN Guidelines on Space Debris (2007, 2019 COPUOS guidelines)
  • India's ISRO follows IADC guidelines for satellite disposal
  • Active Debris Removal (ADR): technology under development globally

Militarisation vs Weaponisation of Space

Concept Meaning Status
Militarisation Using space for military support (reconnaissance, communication, GPS) Already widespread — all major powers
Weaponisation Placing weapons capable of attacking targets (in space or on Earth) Prohibited for WMD by OST Article IV; conventional weapons technically not banned
India's position Supports peaceful use; no space weapons; but ASAT test signals space-based deterrence

India's Defence Space Agency (DSA), established in 2019, coordinates military space operations including satellite-based intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR).

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

  1. (UPSC 2016) With reference to 'Astrosat', India's first multi-wavelength space observatory, consider the following statements: 1. Other than the ISRO, the main participants are the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA). 2. AstroSat is a satellite of about 1513 kg. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  2. (UPSC 2019) Consider the following statements regarding the 'Outer Space Treaty': 1. It was signed and ratified in 1967. 2. India is a signatory to the Treaty. 3. The Treaty limits the deployment of nuclear weapons to the Moon only. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  3. (UPSC 2021) With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: 1. PSLV launches satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLV is designed to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky as viewed from a particular location on Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  4. (UPSC 2024) Consider the following: 1. Chandrayaan-3 landing site named "Shiv Shakti Point." 2. The landing occurred on August 23, 2023. 3. India was the first country to land on the lunar south pole. Which is/are correct?

Mains

  1. (UPSC 2016, GS3) What is India's plan to use the 'Space technology' for the benefit of its citizens? Discuss how the 'Space technology' is helping India in its socio-economic development.

  2. (UPSC 2019, GS3) What is India's plan to develop a human spaceflight programme? What are the challenges involved?

  3. (UPSC 2023, GS3) Discuss the significance of India's recent space missions. How does the Indian Space Policy 2023 seek to transform India into a global space hub?

  4. (UPSC 2024, GS3) With the success of Chandrayaan-3, examine India's emerging role in global space exploration. What are the implications of India signing the Artemis Accords?

Exam Strategy

High-yield for Prelims:

  • Chandrayaan-3: July 14, 2023 launch; August 23, 2023 south pole landing; 4th nation soft-landing; Vikram lander + Pragyan rover
  • Aditya-L1: First solar observatory; L1 point; 1.5 million km from Earth
  • Mission Shakti: March 27, 2019; 4th ASAT-capable nation; low orbit to minimise debris
  • India signed Artemis Accords: June 21, 2023 (27th signatory)
  • Indian Space Policy 2023: ISRO (R&D), IN-SPACe (regulate/promote NGEs), NSIL (commercial)
  • NavIC: 7 satellites, 10m accuracy, L5 + S band
  • Outer Space Treaty: 1967, no WMD in space, no sovereignty, states responsible for national activities

For Mains (GS3):

  • Analyse the transformation from ISRO-monopoly to multi-stakeholder model (ISP 2023)
  • Space as a dual-use technology: civil benefits vs military applications
  • Space debris as a global commons problem — link to Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons"
  • NavIC strategic importance: not dependent on US GPS during conflict
  • Chandrayaan-3 cost-efficiency: ₹615 crore vs NASA's equivalent missions — what does this say about India's jugaad innovation?
  • Gaganyaan timeline delays: systems engineering complexity, crew safety standards

Mnemonic for space treaties: O-R-L-M = Outer Space (1967), Rescue (1968), Liability (1972), Moon Agreement (1979) — arranged chronologically; Moon Agreement is the odd one out (not signed by major powers).