Social Movements & Activism — Peasant, Labour, Dalit, Environmental & Digital Movements

Introduction

Social movements have been a defining force in shaping modern India -- from the peasant uprisings of colonial and post-colonial periods to the digital activism of the 21st century. These movements have challenged entrenched power structures, demanded rights for marginalised communities, and pushed for policy reforms across governance, land, labour, gender, environment, and civil liberties.

For UPSC, understanding social movements is essential across GS-I (Indian Society, Post-Independence History), GS-II (Governance, Polity), and Essay papers. Questions frequently test the causes, trajectory, leadership, outcomes, and contemporary relevance of these movements.

Part I -- Peasant Movements

1.1 Tebhaga Movement (1946--1947)

The Tebhaga movement gathered momentum from September to December 1946, spreading to at least 19 districts of undivided Bengal. Sharecroppers were emboldened by the Bengal Land Revenue Commission's recommendation for a two-thirds share. The devastating Bengal Famine of 1943 had intensified rural distress.

Sharecroppers began asserting that they would pay only one-third of the produce and that crops would be stored in their godowns, not those of the jotedars (landlords). In many areas, landlords fled, leaving parts of the countryside under Kisan Sabha control.

Legislative outcome: The Bargadari Act of 1950 recognised the right of the sharecropper to two-thirds of the produce when they provided the inputs, though implementation remained weak.

1.2 Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle (1946--1951)

Hyderabad's feudal system concentrated land in the hands of Durras (Doras), who exercised near-absolute power over peasants, including agricultural slavery. By the end of July 1946, around 300--400 villages in Warangal, Nalgonda, and Khammam experienced militant peasant action.

Villages adopted active defence strategies -- signal networks to warn of approaching state forces, and mass gatherings armed with slingshots and sticks. The Nizam's Razakars paramilitary force conducted violent reprisals against rebel villages.

On 13 September 1948, the Indian Army entered Hyderabad in "Operation Polo" (police action). The Nizam surrendered within a week. The CPI formally withdrew the struggle on 21 October 1951 following negotiations with the Congress government.

Significance: One of the most sustained armed peasant struggles in post-independence India, it influenced land reform legislation in Andhra Pradesh.

1.3 Naxalbari Uprising (1967)

On 3 March 1967, around 150 peasants armed with bows and spears seized approximately 11,000 kg of paddy and began occupying land. The movement grew as peasant committees gained control of regions around Naxalbari, Kharibari, and Phansidewa, seizing land, ammunition, and food grains from jotedars.

On 25 May 1967, police firing killed nine women and one child. Paramilitary forces were deployed by 19 July 1967, suppressing the armed phase. However, the uprising gave birth to Naxalism and the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency, which spread to multiple states and continues in some form today.

In 1969, the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) was formally established, drawing ideological foundations from the Naxalbari experience.

1.4 Farm Protests (2020--2021)

The Three Farm Laws (September 2020):

1. Farmers' Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Act -- allowed farmers to sell produce outside APMC mandis
2. Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Act -- framework for contract farming
3. Essential Commodities (Amendment) Act -- removed cereals, pulses, oilseeds, onion, and potato from the list of essential commodities

Farmers feared the laws would dismantle the MSP mechanism and government-run wholesale markets, leaving them vulnerable to corporate exploitation.

Key events:

• 12 January 2021: Supreme Court stayed implementation and appointed a committee to examine farmer grievances
• 26 January 2021: Massive tractor rally entered Delhi on Republic Day
• 19 November 2021: Prime Minister Modi announced repeal of all three laws
• 29 November 2021: Parliament passed the repeal bill -- the Lok Sabha cleared it in just four minutes (tabled at 12:06 PM, passed by 12:10 PM)

By the end of the protests, over 700 protesters had died due to exposure to harsh weather, illness (including COVID-19), state action, and suicide.

Part II -- Labour Movements

2.1 Trade Union Movement in India

The trade union movement in India began with the formation of AITUC in 1920, with Lala Lajpat Rai as its first president. The Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 provided the legal framework for dispute resolution through conciliation, arbitration, and adjudication.

2.2 Key Labour Legislation Milestones

2.3 Gig Workers and Platform Economy

The rise of app-based platforms (food delivery, ride-hailing, logistics) has created a new class of workers who fall outside traditional employer-employee frameworks. The Code on Social Security, 2020 was the first Indian law to formally define "gig workers" and "platform workers" and envisage social security benefits for them.

The e-Shram portal, launched on 26 August 2021, has registered over 30.98 crore unorganised workers (as of August 2025), including over 3.37 lakh platform and gig workers, creating the world's largest database of unorganised workers.

Part III -- Dalit Movements

3.1 The Ambedkarite Foundation

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891--1956) laid the ideological and organisational foundation for Dalit rights in India:

• Mahad Satyagraha (1927): Led Dalits to drink water from the Chavdar Tank in Mahad, Maharashtra -- one of the earliest assertions of civil rights
• Temple Entry Movement: Challenged the exclusion of "untouchables" from Hindu temples
• Burning of Manusmriti (25 December 1927): Symbolic rejection of caste hierarchy codified in ancient texts
• Independent Labour Party (1936): Ambedkar's first political party, contested the 1937 elections
• Scheduled Castes Federation (1942): Precursor to the Republican Party of India (1957)
• Conversion to Buddhism (14 October 1956): Along with approximately 500,000 followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur

3.2 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

Founded by Kanshi Ram in 1984, the BSP became the political vehicle for Dalit assertion in north India. Under Mayawati's leadership, the BSP formed government in Uttar Pradesh four times (1995, 1997, 2002, 2007), with the 2007 victory being notable for winning an outright majority using a coalition of Dalits and upper-caste Brahmins ("social engineering").

3.3 Una Flogging Incident (2016)

On 11 July 2016, seven members of a Dalit family were publicly flogged by self-proclaimed "gau rakshaks" (cow vigilantes) in Una, Gir Somnath district, Gujarat, while skinning dead cattle. The video went viral on social media, triggering statewide protests.

Dalit leader Jignesh Mevani led the "Dalit Asmita Yatra" from Ahmedabad to Una, culminating on 15 August 2016 with approximately 20,000 Dalits pledging to give up their traditional occupation of removing cow carcasses. Forty-three people, including four Gujarat Police officers, were arrested.

3.4 Bhima Koregaon (2018)

On 1 January 2018, violence erupted during the 200th anniversary celebration of the Battle of Koregaon Bhima (1818) in Maharashtra. The 1818 battle holds deep significance for Dalits -- a battalion of approximately 800 soldiers, predominantly from the Mahar caste, had forced the retreat of a 30,000-strong Peshwa army.

The incident led to widespread Dalit protests across Maharashtra. Subsequently, several activists and academics were arrested under the UAPA on charges of Maoist links and inciting violence through the Elgar Parishad event held on 31 December 2017. The case remains contested, with digital forensics investigations questioning the evidence.

Part IV -- Tribal Movements

4.1 Birsa Munda and the Ulgulan (1899--1900)

Birsa Munda mobilised tribals against colonial exploitation of their land and forest rights. On Christmas Eve 1899, the Mundas launched an armed rebellion across areas covering six police stations in Ranchi and Singhbhum districts. Birsa Munda was captured and died in jail on 9 June 1900.

Legacy: The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (CNT), 1908 was enacted by the colonial government, prohibiting the transfer of tribal land to non-tribals. Birsa Munda's birth anniversary (15 November) is celebrated as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas.

4.2 Pathalgadi Movement (2017--2018)

The Pathalgadi movement in Jharkhand involved tribals erecting stone plaques (pathalgadi) -- measuring approximately 9 ft by 3 ft, painted green and white -- in over 200 villages, declaring the supreme authority of traditional Gram Sabhas over their land and resources.

Trigger: The BJP government's 2016 amendments to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (CNT), 1908 and Santhal Pargana Tenancy (SPT) Act, 1949, which sought to allow governments to acquire tribal land for commercial use without gram sabha permission. After strong resistance, the Governor refused assent in May 2017, and the bills were withdrawn in August 2017.

However, the movement escalated. Police lodged 30 cases against 11,321 villagers, with 21 cases carrying sedition charges under Section 124A of the IPC. The Hemant Soren government later withdrew cases related to the movement.

4.3 Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (enacted 18 December 2006) recognises the rights of forest-dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources. The Act impacts an estimated 150 million forest-dwelling people, 40 million hectares of land, and 1,70,000 villages.

Rights recognised: Individual rights (self-cultivation, habitation), community rights (grazing, fishing, access to water bodies, habitat rights for PVTGs), intellectual property over traditional knowledge, and the right to protect and manage community forest resources.

Implementation challenges: Slow processing of claims, lack of awareness among tribal communities, OTFD claimants required to produce 75 years of residence documentation, and recurring clashes between MoTA (nodal ministry for FRA) and MoEFCC (forest policy implementation).

Part V -- Women's Movements

5.1 Historical Milestones

5.2 Shah Bano Case (1985)

The Supreme Court ruled in favour of Shah Bano, a 62-year-old Muslim woman, granting her maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC. However, the Rajiv Gandhi government passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, effectively overturning the judgment. This case became a landmark in the debate over Uniform Civil Code and women's rights versus religious personal law.

5.3 Vishakha Guidelines (1997)

Following the gang rape of Bhanwari Devi, a social worker in Rajasthan, the Supreme Court in Vishakha v. State of Rajasthan (1997) laid down binding guidelines for prevention of sexual harassment at the workplace. These guidelines remained in force until the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 was enacted.

5.4 MeToo Movement in India (2018)

The global MeToo movement reached India in October 2018, with women from journalism, entertainment, academia, and the corporate sector sharing accounts of sexual harassment and assault on social media. Former Union Minister M.J. Akbar was among the high-profile persons accused; he subsequently resigned. The movement renewed attention to implementation gaps in the 2013 POSH Act.

5.5 Sabarimala Temple Entry (2018)

On 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court ruled 4:1 (Chief Justice Dipak Misra, Justices A.M. Khanwilkar, R.F. Nariman, D.Y. Chandrachud in majority; Justice Indu Malhotra dissenting) that women of all ages could enter the Sabarimala temple in Kerala. The Court held that the ban violated Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 25 (freedom of religion). The verdict triggered protests from devotees opposed to women's entry. Review petitions were subsequently referred to a larger bench.

Part VI -- Environmental Movements

6.1 Chipko Movement (1973 onwards)

The first Chipko action occurred when the forest department allotted 300 ash trees to a sports goods company. Villagers under Chandi Prasad Bhatt's Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) opposed the felling.

In 1974, Gaura Devi led 27 women of Reni village to confront loggers who threatened them with guns. The women kept an all-night vigil, guarding their trees.

Between 1981 and 1983, Sunderlal Bahuguna marched 5,000 km across the Himalayas to popularise the movement. In 1980, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi imposed a 15-year ban on green tree felling in the Himalayan regions.

6.2 Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)

The movement against the Sardar Sarovar Dam and other large dams on the Narmada River was led by Medha Patkar from the mid-1980s. The NBA raised fundamental questions about the development model, displacement of tribals and farmers, and environmental destruction.

The Supreme Court in its 2000 judgment (Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India) allowed construction to continue subject to conditions on rehabilitation of displaced persons.

6.3 Silent Valley Movement (1973--1985)

The campaign to save the tropical evergreen forest of Silent Valley in Palakkad district, Kerala, from a proposed hydroelectric dam became a watershed in Indian environmental history. The movement, supported by the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), succeeded when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared Silent Valley a National Park in 1984 (formally notified in 1985).

6.4 Anti-Nuclear Movements

The Kudankulam anti-nuclear movement in Tamil Nadu (2011--2012) was a significant people's movement against the commissioning of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant. Fishermen and local communities raised concerns about radiation hazards and environmental damage.

Part VII -- Student Movements

Student movements have played a significant role in Indian political life:

Part VIII -- Anti-Corruption Movement

8.1 Anna Hazare's India Against Corruption (2011)

The movement demanded a Lokpal with strong powers, including jurisdiction over the Prime Minister, judiciary, and lower bureaucracy. The government's 2010 draft Lokpal Bill was seen as a diluted version.

Outcomes:

• The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act was finally enacted in 2013
• Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose was appointed as India's first Lokpal on 19 March 2019 (oath on 23 March 2019); he retired on 27 May 2022
• Arvind Kejriwal parted ways with Anna Hazare and formed the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) on 26 November 2012

8.2 RTI Movement

The Right to Information movement, championed by Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) under Aruna Roy in Rajasthan during the 1990s, led to the passage of the Right to Information Act, 2005 -- considered one of the most powerful transparency laws in the democratic world.

Part IX -- Digital Activism and Social Media Movements

9.1 Rise of Digital Activism in India

With over 850 million internet users (as of 2025), India has witnessed a transformation in how social movements organise and mobilise:

• Hashtag movements: #MeToo (2018), #JusticeForAsifa (2018), #NotInMyName (2017 -- against mob lynching)
• Social media petitions: Change.org campaigns on environmental and social issues
• Citizen journalism: Real-time documentation of protests, police action, and rights violations
• WhatsApp organising: Used extensively during the 2020--21 farm protests for mobilisation

9.2 Strengths of Digital Activism

• Speed and reach: Instantaneous dissemination across geographical boundaries
• Low cost of participation: Anyone with a smartphone can engage
• Documentation: Video evidence of incidents (as seen in the Una flogging case) can trigger nationwide outrage
• Bypassing media gatekeepers: Direct communication with the public

9.3 Limitations and Concerns

• Slacktivism: Online engagement may not translate into sustained on-ground action
• Misinformation: Rapid spread of unverified claims and fake news
• State surveillance: Monitoring of social media activity and internet shutdowns during protests
• Digital divide: Rural and marginalised communities with limited internet access may be excluded
• Platform manipulation: Bots and coordinated campaigns can distort narratives

Analytical Framework for UPSC

Typology of Social Movements

Factors Behind Success or Failure

1. Leadership quality -- charismatic and strategic leadership (Ambedkar, Anna Hazare, Sunderlal Bahuguna)
2. Mass participation -- especially women's participation (Chipko, anti-arrack, farm protests)
3. Media attention -- traditional and social media amplification
4. State response -- repressive response can either crush or galvanise movements
5. Legal and institutional outcomes -- translation into legislation or policy change
6. Coalitions -- ability to build alliances across caste, class, and regional lines

Key Terms and Vocabulary

Exam Strategy Tips

For Prelims: Focus on factual details -- dates, leaders, specific demands, legislative outcomes of each movement. The Tebhaga, Telangana, and Naxalbari movements are frequently tested.

For Mains GS-I: Frame answers around the socio-economic causes, methods of mobilisation, role of ideology, and impact on policy. Compare and contrast movements (e.g., reformist vs. revolutionary).

For Mains GS-II: Connect movements to governance reforms -- how movements led to the RTI Act, Lokpal Act, Forest Rights Act, POSH Act, or farm law repeals.

For Essay: Social movements as agents of democratic deepening; the tension between development and displacement; digital activism as the new frontier of people's power.