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Constitutional Provisions — Cheat Sheet
Key articles of the Indian Constitution organised by Part — for fast Prelims recall. Article numbers, subjects, and exam-critical notes.
How to use this page: The Constitution has 448 articles (as amended) in 25 Parts and 12 Schedules. UPSC Prelims tests ~60–80 key articles repeatedly. This cheat sheet covers the highest-frequency articles — learn the article number, the subject, and the exam-critical note column.
📋 Parts of the Constitution — Overview
| Part | Subject | Articles | Key Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | The Union and its Territory | 1–4 | Art 3: Parliament (not states) can form new states, alter boundaries. Requires President's recommendation. |
| II | Citizenship | 5–11 | Parliament has exclusive power to legislate on citizenship (Art 11). Citizenship Act 1955 governs it. |
| III | Fundamental Rights | 12–35 | 6 Fundamental Rights. Originally 7 — Right to Property (Art 31) removed by 44th Amendment 1978, moved to Art 300A as legal right. |
| IV | Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) | 36–51 | Non-justiciable but fundamental to governance (Art 37). Borrowed from Irish Constitution. |
| IVA | Fundamental Duties | 51A | Added by 42nd Amendment 1976 (10 duties). 11th duty added by 86th Amendment 2002. Borrowed from USSR Constitution. |
| V | The Union (President, Parliament, SC, CAG) | 52–151 | Chapter I: Executive (52–78), Chapter II: Parliament (79–122), Chapter III: Leg. powers of President (123), Chapter IV: Union Judiciary (124–147), Chapter V: CAG (148–151). |
| VI | The States | 152–237 | Chapter I: General, Chapter II: Executive (Governor, CM, AG), Chapter III: State Legislature, Chapter V: HCs, Chapter VI: Subordinate Courts. |
| VII | Abolished | — | Part VII (States in Part B of 1st Schedule) abolished by 7th Amendment 1956. |
| VIII | Union Territories | 239–242 | Art 239AA: Special provisions for Delhi (NCT). Art 239AB: Failure of constitutional machinery in UT. |
| IX | The Panchayats | 243–243O | Added by 73rd Amendment 1992. 3-tier Panchayati Raj system. Art 243D: Reservation for SC/ST/women (1/3 minimum for women). |
| IXA | The Municipalities | 243P–243ZG | Added by 74th Amendment 1992. 18 functions (12th Schedule). Art 243T: 1/3 seats reserved for women. |
| IXB | Co-operative Societies | 243ZH–243ZT | Added by 97th Amendment 2011. Struck down in part by Supreme Court (2021) — Part III (state co-ops) void; Part II (multi-state) valid. |
| X | Scheduled and Tribal Areas | 244–244A | Art 244(1): 5th Schedule — Scheduled Areas. Art 244(2): 6th Schedule — Tribal Areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram. |
| XI | Relations between Union and States | 245–263 | Art 246: 3 lists (Union, State, Concurrent). Art 248: Residuary powers with Parliament. Art 263: Inter-State Council. |
| XII | Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits | 264–300A | Art 280: Finance Commission. Art 300A: Right to Property (legal right). Art 279A: GST Council (101st Amendment 2016). |
| XIII | Trade, Commerce and Intercourse | 301–307 | Art 301: Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse. Parliament and States can impose reasonable restrictions. |
| XIV | Services under Union and States | 308–323 | Art 312: Parliament can create All India Services by Rajya Sabha resolution (Special Majority). Art 315–323: UPSC and SPSCs. |
| XIVA | Tribunals | 323A–323B | Added by 42nd Amendment 1976. Art 323A: Administrative Tribunals (CAT). Art 323B: Other tribunals (tax, industrial disputes). |
| XV | Elections | 324–329A | Art 324: Election Commission. Art 326: Universal Adult Franchise. Art 329: Bar on courts in electoral matters (except SC/HC Election Petitions). |
| XVI | Special Provisions for Certain Classes | 330–342A | Art 338: NCSC. Art 338A: NCST (89th Amendment 2003). Art 338B: NCBC (102nd Amendment 2018). Art 330/332: Reservation in Parliament/Assemblies (extended every 10 years). |
| XVII | Official Language | 343–351 | Art 343: Hindi in Devanagari = Official Language of Union (NOT national language). Art 351: Directive to develop Hindi. |
| XVIII | Emergency Provisions | 352–360 | Art 352: National Emergency. Art 356: President's Rule. Art 360: Financial Emergency. None declared since 1977 (National), 1977 (State), never (Financial). |
| XIX | Miscellaneous | 361–367 | Art 368: Power to amend Constitution (in Part XX). Art 366: Definitions. Art 370: Special status of J&K — abrogated 5 August 2019 by Presidential Order. |
| XX | Amendment of Constitution | 368 | Art 368: Three methods of amendment — Simple majority, Special majority, Special majority + ratification by half states. |
| XXI | Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions | 369–392 | Art 370 was here (abrogated 2019). Art 371–371J: Special provisions for specific states (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, AP, Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal, Goa, Karnataka). |
| XXII | Short title, commencement, Hindi text, repeals | 393–395 | Art 393: Short title — "The Constitution of India". Art 394: Commencement — 26 January 1950. Art 395: Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 repealed. |
🔐 Part III — Fundamental Rights (Articles 12–35)
6 Fundamental Rights: Right to Equality (14–18) · Right to Freedom (19–22) · Right against Exploitation (23–24) · Right to Freedom of Religion (25–28) · Cultural & Educational Rights (29–30) · Right to Constitutional Remedies (32). Note: Right to Property was Art 31 — removed as FR by 44th Amendment 1978 and moved to Art 300A as a constitutional (but not fundamental) right.
| Article | Subject | Exam-Critical Note |
|---|---|---|
| 12 | Definition of "State" | Includes Parliament + State Legislatures + all local or other authorities. Fundamental Rights are enforceable against the "State" as defined here. |
| 13 | Laws inconsistent with FRs are void | Basis of Judicial Review in India. Pre-constitutional laws (Art 13(1)) and post-constitutional laws (Art 13(2)) covered. |
| 14 | Equality before law | "Equality before law" (negative concept; from English law) + "Equal protection of laws" (positive concept; from US Constitution). Available to all persons, including foreign nationals. |
| 15 | Prohibition of discrimination | On grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Art 15(3): Special provisions for women and children. Art 15(4): Backward classes (added by 1st Amendment 1951). Art 15(5): Educationally backward (93rd Amendment 2005). Art 15(6): EWS 10% (103rd Amendment 2019). |
| 16 | Equality of opportunity in public employment | Art 16(4): Reservation for backward classes in posts. Art 16(4A): Reservation in promotion for SC/ST. Art 16(4B): Carry-forward of unfilled vacancies. Art 16(6): EWS 10% reservation (103rd Amendment 2019). |
| 17 | Abolition of Untouchability | Absolute right — no reasonable restrictions. Enforcement: Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 and SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act 1989. |
| 18 | Abolition of titles | State shall not confer titles. Exception: Military and academic distinctions. Bharat Ratna etc. are NOT titles — SC upheld in Balaji Raghavan case (1996). |
| 19 | Six freedoms | (a) Speech & expression (b) Peaceful assembly (c) Association (d) Free movement (e) Residence (f) Profession. Originally 7 freedoms — (g) Property removed by 44th Amendment 1978. Only for CITIZENS. |
| 20 | Protection against conviction | 3 protections: (1) No ex post facto law (2) No double jeopardy (3) No self-incrimination. Cannot be suspended even during Emergency (along with Art 21). |
| 21 | Right to life and personal liberty | "No person" — available to non-citizens too. Expanded by Maneka Gandhi case (1978) — procedure must be fair, just, reasonable. Includes right to privacy (Puttaswamy judgment 2017). |
| 21A | Right to Education | Added by 86th Amendment 2002. Free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14. Implemented by Right to Education Act 2009. |
| 22 | Protection against arrest and detention | Grounds of arrest must be communicated. Right to consult legal practitioner. Produced before magistrate within 24 hours. Art 22(3–7): Preventive detention (DPSP applies — no time limit if Parliament specifies; max 3 months otherwise). |
| 23 | Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour | Begar (forced labour), human trafficking prohibited. Enforcement: Immoral Traffic Prevention Act, Bonded Labour System Abolition Act 1976. |
| 24 | Prohibition of child labour | No child below 14 years in factories, mines, or hazardous employment. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act 2016 amended to extend to below 14 in all employment and below 18 in hazardous industries. |
| 25 | Freedom of conscience and religion | Subject to public order, morality, health. State can regulate secular activities associated with religion. Includes right to propagate religion. |
| 26 | Freedom to manage religious affairs | Every religious denomination can manage own religious affairs, establish institutions, own property. Subject to public order, morality, health. |
| 28 | Freedom from religious instruction in State institutions | No religious instruction in wholly State-funded educational institutions. Partially State-funded or trust-established institutions may provide voluntary religious instruction. |
| 29 | Protection of interests of minorities | Any section of citizens with distinct language, script, or culture can conserve it. Admission to State-funded educational institutions cannot be denied on grounds of religion, race, caste, language. |
| 30 | Right of minorities to establish educational institutions | Religious and linguistic minorities can establish and administer educational institutions. State cannot discriminate in granting aid (Art 30(2)). |
| 32 | Right to Constitutional Remedies | Dr. Ambedkar: "Heart and soul of the Constitution." 5 writs: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto. Cannot be suspended except during National Emergency. |
| 33 | Modification of FRs for armed forces | Parliament can restrict FRs of armed forces, police, intelligence personnel by law. |
| 34 | Restriction of FRs during Martial Law | Parliament can indemnify acts done during Martial Law. |
| 35 | Legislation to give effect to Part III | Only Parliament (not State Legislatures) can make laws to implement Arts 16(3), 32(3), 33, 34. |
📜 Part IV — Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36–51)
DPSPs are non-justiciable — cannot be enforced by courts (Art 37). But Art 37 says they are "fundamental in the governance of the country." Borrowed from the Irish Constitution. Three categories: Socialistic, Gandhian, Liberal-Intellectual.
| Article | Subject | Category & Key Note |
|---|---|---|
| 38 | State to secure a social order; reduce inequalities | Socialistic. Art 38(2) added by 44th Amendment 1978 — specifically to minimise inequalities in income, status, facilities. |
| 39 | Certain policy principles | Socialistic. Includes equal pay for equal work [Art 39(d)]; no concentration of wealth [Art 39(c)]; ownership/control of material resources for common good [Art 39(b)]. Art 39(b)&(c) protected under Art 31C (42nd Amendment). |
| 39A | Equal justice and free legal aid | Socialistic. Added by 42nd Amendment 1976. Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 implements this. |
| 40 | Organisation of village panchayats | Gandhian. Led to 73rd Amendment 1992 (Part IX of Constitution). |
| 41 | Right to work, education and public assistance | Socialistic. "Within the limits of economic capacity." MGNREGS 2005 is seen as partial implementation. |
| 43 | Living wage for workers | Gandhian. Cottage industries. Art 43A (added 42nd Amendment): Worker participation in management of industries. |
| 44 | Uniform Civil Code (UCC) | Liberal-Intellectual. "State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a UCC throughout the territory of India." Frequently cited in SC judgments (Shah Bano 1985, Sarla Mudgal 1995). |
| 45 | Early childhood care and education | Originally: Free and compulsory education up to 14 years — this was shifted to Art 21A (Fundamental Right) by 86th Amendment 2002. Art 45 now provides for early childhood care for children below 6 years. |
| 46 | Promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, OBCs | Gandhian. State to protect SCs/STs from social injustice and exploitation. |
| 47 | Duty to raise nutrition and standard of living; prohibition of intoxicating drinks | Gandhian. State shall prohibit consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health (basis of Prohibition laws in states). |
| 48 | Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry | Gandhian. Includes prohibition of cow slaughter — basis of State laws on cow protection. |
| 48A | Protection and improvement of environment | Added by 42nd Amendment 1976. Often read with Art 21 by SC to include right to clean environment as part of right to life. |
| 49 | Protection of monuments and places of national importance | Liberal-Intellectual. Implemented by Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958. |
| 50 | Separation of Judiciary from Executive | Liberal-Intellectual. Implemented in states gradually; fully separated in most states by the 1970s. |
| 51 | Promotion of international peace and security | Liberal-Intellectual. Includes respect for international law and treaty obligations. Basis for India's foreign policy principles. |
🧭 Part IVA — Fundamental Duties (Article 51A)
Source: Borrowed from the USSR Constitution. Added by 42nd Amendment 1976 on the recommendation of Swaran Singh Committee. Originally 10 duties — 11th duty added by 86th Amendment 2002 (duty of parents/guardians to ensure education for children aged 6–14). Not justiciable but courts can take note of them.
| # | Fundamental Duty | Key Note |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals, institutions, National Flag and National Anthem. | Art 51A(a). Basis for the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act 1971. |
| 2 | Cherish and follow the noble ideals of the national struggle for freedom. | Art 51A(b). |
| 3 | Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. | Art 51A(c). |
| 4 | Defend the country and render national service when called upon. | Art 51A(d). |
| 5 | Promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood; renounce practices derogatory to women. | Art 51A(e). |
| 6 | Value and preserve the rich heritage of the country's composite culture. | Art 51A(f). |
| 7 | Protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife; have compassion for living creatures. | Art 51A(g). Read with Art 48A (DPSP) and Art 21 — foundation of environmental jurisprudence. |
| 8 | Develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform. | Art 51A(h). |
| 9 | Safeguard public property and abjure violence. | Art 51A(i). |
| 10 | Strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity. | Art 51A(j). |
| 11 | Every parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education of the child aged 6–14 years. | Art 51A(k). Added by 86th Amendment 2002 — same amendment that added Art 21A (Right to Education as FR). |
🏛️ Part V — Union Executive & Parliament (Key Articles)
| Article | Subject | Exam-Critical Note |
|---|---|---|
| 52 | The President of India | India has a President (not a Prime Minister) as the formal head — constitutional head. Executive power of Union vested in President (Art 53). |
| 54 | Election of President | Elected by Electoral College: elected members of both Houses of Parliament + elected members of State Legislative Assemblies + elected members of UTs with Legislatures (Delhi, Puducherry, J&K). Not MLCs. |
| 56 | Term of President | 5 years. Can resign to Vice-President. Can be removed by impeachment (Art 61). |
| 58 | Qualifications for President | Citizen of India · At least 35 years of age · Qualified to be a member of Lok Sabha · Not hold any office of profit. |
| 60 | Oath of President | Oath administered by Chief Justice of India (or senior-most SC judge in CJI's absence). |
| 61 | Impeachment of President | By either House for "violation of Constitution." 14 days notice; 2/3 majority of total membership of initiating House; then 2/3 majority of other House. Only constitutional process requiring absolute majority of TOTAL membership. |
| 63 | Vice-President of India | Art 64: Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. Art 65: Acts as President during vacancy/absence. Art 66: Elected by members of both Houses in joint sitting (unlike President — no state legislators). |
| 72 | Pardoning powers of President | Pardon · Reprieve · Respite · Remission · Commutation. Includes cases of death sentence and court-martial. Governor's pardoning power (Art 161) does NOT extend to death sentences or court-martial cases — key difference. |
| 74 | Council of Ministers (CoM) to aid and advise President | 44th Amendment 1978: President may ask CoM to reconsider once, but is bound by reconsidered advice. PM is head of CoM. |
| 76 | Attorney General of India | Appointed by President. Qualifications = SC judge qualifications. Right of audience in all courts in India. Not a member of Cabinet; not government employee — gets fees, not salary. |
| 79 | Constitution of Parliament | Parliament = President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha. |
| 80 | Composition of Rajya Sabha | Maximum 250 members (238 elected + 12 nominated by President for Arts, Science, Literature, Social Service). Current strength: 245. Permanent body — 1/3 retire every 2 years. Members serve 6-year terms. |
| 81 | Composition of Lok Sabha | Maximum 552 (530 states + 20 UTs + 2 nominated Anglo-Indians — Art 331 removed by 104th Amendment 2020; now 543 seats max). Current: 543 elected. Dissolved after 5 years or earlier. No elections if National Emergency in force (extension by Parliament by 1 year at a time). |
| 93 | Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha | Elected by Lok Sabha members. Speaker can be removed by effective majority (majority of all members) of LS with 14 days notice. Speaker remains in office until first sitting of new LS (unlike RS Chairman who continues). |
| 108 | Joint sitting of both Houses | Called by President on certain deadlocked Bills. Presided over by Lok Sabha Speaker. NOT applicable for Money Bills, Constitution Amendment Bills, or Financial Bills under Art 117(1). Three instances: Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Banking Service Commission Repeal Act 1978, POTA 2002. |
| 109 | Money Bills — special procedure | Can originate only in Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha can only return with recommendations (not binding); must do so within 14 days. If RS doesn't return in 14 days, deemed passed. Speaker certifies a Bill as Money Bill (final, cannot be questioned in court). |
| 110 | Definition of Money Bills | Only covers 7 matters: imposition/abolition/remission/alteration/regulation of taxes; borrowing; Consolidated Fund/Contingency Fund; appropriation; declaring expenditure charged; receipt of money; incidental matters. Anything else = Financial Bill (not Money Bill). |
| 112 | Annual Financial Statement (Union Budget) | Statement of estimated receipts and expenditure for the financial year (1 April – 31 March). Presented by Finance Minister in Parliament. |
| 123 | President's Ordinance-making power | Only when Parliament is not in session. Must be laid before Parliament when it reassembles. Ceases to operate after 6 weeks of reassembly, or earlier if disapproved. Life = 6 months + 6 weeks maximum. |
| 124 | Supreme Court — Establishment and Composition | CJI + up to 33 other judges (maximum 34 total). Judges appointed by President in consultation with collegium. Tenure: until 65 years of age. |
| 129 | SC as Court of Record | Judgments of SC are binding on all courts (Art 141). SC has power to punish for contempt of itself. |
| 131 | Original Jurisdiction of SC | Disputes between Union and State(s), or between States — EXCLUSIVE jurisdiction. Citizens cannot directly approach SC under Art 131. |
| 136 | Special Leave Petition (SLP) | SC may, in its discretion, grant special leave to appeal from any court or tribunal in India (not just HCs). Art 136 — source of SC's broad appellate power. |
| 141 | Law declared by SC is binding | Binding on all courts within India. Even HC judgments must follow SC precedents. Ratio decidendi is binding; obiter dicta is persuasive. |
| 142 | SC's extraordinary decree power | SC may pass such decree or order as is necessary for doing complete justice. Frequently used in landmark cases (Bhopal gas settlement, Taj Trapezium zone, etc.). |
| 143 | Advisory Jurisdiction of SC | President may refer matters of public importance to SC for advisory opinion. SC may refuse to give opinion. Opinion is NOT binding on President. |
| 148 | Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) | Appointed by President. Term: 6 years or 65 years (whichever earlier). Cannot be reappointed. Removal same as SC judge (Art 124(4)). Reports submitted to President/Governor who lay them before Parliament/Legislature. |
🏢 Part VI — State Executive & Legislature (Key Articles)
| Article | Subject | Exam-Critical Note |
|---|---|---|
| 153 | Governor of States | Every State shall have a Governor. Art 154: Executive power vested in Governor. Art 155: Appointed by President (not elected). Art 156: Holds office at pleasure of President — no security of tenure like SC judges. |
| 157 | Qualifications for Governor | Citizen of India. At least 35 years of age. Not a member of legislature. Not hold any office of profit. Simpler qualifications than President — no minimum Lok Sabha membership qualification required. |
| 161 | Pardoning power of Governor | Can pardon, reprieve, respite, remit, commute sentences. Does NOT cover death sentences or court-martial sentences — these are exclusive to President (Art 72). Key exam distinction. |
| 163 | Council of Ministers to aid Governor | Governor acts on CoM advice except in matters where Constitution requires him to exercise discretion. Key discretionary powers: sending reports to President under Art 356, reserving Bills for President's assent (Art 200), appointing CM when hung assembly. |
| 165 | Advocate General of State | Appointed by Governor. Equivalent of AG at state level. Has right of audience in all courts in the state. |
| 169 | Abolition or creation of Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) | By Parliament on resolution of State Legislative Assembly passed by Special Majority (not State's own amendment). Currently 6 states have Legislative Councils: UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana. |
| 200 | Assent to Bills by Governor | Governor may assent, withhold assent, return Bill (if not a Money Bill), or reserve for President's consideration. If reserved, President may assent, withhold, or direct Governor to return to Legislature. |
| 213 | Governor's Ordinance-making power | Same conditions as President (Art 123) but for State — only when State Legislature is not in session. Cannot make Ordinance on subjects in Union List without President's instructions. |
| 214 | High Courts for States | Art 216: HC constitution (CJ + other judges). Art 217: Judges appointed by President after consultation with CJI + Governor + HC Chief Justice. Tenure: 62 years (unlike SC: 65). |
| 226 | HC's power to issue writs | HC can issue writs for enforcement of FRs AND for any other purpose (broader than SC's Art 32 — only FRs). Key difference: HC = FRs + other legal rights; SC = FRs only under Art 32. But SC also has Art 136 (SLP) and Art 142 powers. |
| 227 | HC's superintendence over all courts | HC superintends all courts and tribunals in its jurisdiction. Broader than Art 226 (which is for writs). Administrative and supervisory jurisdiction. |
🚨 Part XVIII — Emergency Provisions (Articles 352–360)
Three types of Emergency: National Emergency (Art 352) · State Emergency / President's Rule (Art 356) · Financial Emergency (Art 360). The 44th Amendment 1978 significantly tightened the National Emergency provisions — key amendment for UPSC.
| Article | Type | Grounds | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 352 | National Emergency | War · External aggression · Armed rebellion (was "internal disturbance" before 44th Amendment 1978) |
Proclaimed by President on written advice of Cabinet (44th Amendment — must be in writing, Cabinet = PM + CoM, not PM alone). Approved by Parliament within 1 month by Special Majority (2/3 of members present and voting + majority of total membership of each House). Duration: 6 months renewable by same special majority. No time limit overall. Revocation: By President on its own or on resolution by Lok Sabha by simple majority. Effect: Centre can legislate on State List; State Executives directed by Centre; Art 19 suspended (Art 358); other FRs may be suspended by President's Order (Art 359 — not Art 20 and 21). |
| 353 | Effect of National Emergency | — | Parliament's legislative power extends to State List. Executive power of Centre extends to States. Art 19 freedoms automatically suspended if Emergency due to war/external aggression. |
| 355 | Duty of Union | — | Union's duty to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure that every State Government is carried on in accordance with the Constitution. Basis for Art 356 imposition. |
| 356 | President's Rule (State Emergency) | Failure of constitutional machinery in a State (Governor's report or otherwise) |
Approved by Parliament within 2 months by simple majority (unlike Art 352). Duration: 6 months initially. Extended up to 3 years total (6 months each, with Parliament approval; beyond 1 year requires National Emergency or EC certification of difficulty in holding elections in State). During President's Rule: Governor administers; State Legislature dissolved or suspended; Parliament legislates for State. SC Review: After S.R. Bommai case (1994), SC held President's Rule is subject to judicial review. |
| 360 | Financial Emergency | Threat to financial stability or credit of India or any part thereof |
Approved by Parliament within 2 months by simple majority. Duration: Indefinite (no maximum) — continues until revoked. Effect: Centre can direct States on financial matters; salaries of all government employees (including SC/HC judges) can be reduced; State Money Bills sent to President for assent. Never been proclaimed in India's history. |
| Feature | National Emergency (352) | President's Rule (356) | Financial Emergency (360) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Approval in Parliament | Special Majority (2/3 + majority of total) | Simple Majority | Simple Majority |
| Approval deadline | 1 month | 2 months | 2 months |
| Initial duration | 6 months | 6 months | Indefinite |
| Maximum duration | No limit (renewed every 6 months) | 3 years (special conditions beyond 1 year) | No limit |
| Art 19 suspended? | Yes (automatically if war/external aggression) | No | No |
| Lok Sabha can revoke? | Yes — simple majority resolution | Yes — simple majority | Yes — simple majority |
| Times invoked | 3 times (1962, 1971, 1975) | Over 100 times (various states) | Never |
🔑 Key Constitutional Amendments — Cheat Sheet
| Amendment | Year | Key Changes |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added Arts 15(4), 19(6); 9th Schedule (judicial review-proof laws); First PM Nehru's government — needed to protect land reform laws from FR challenges. |
| 7th | 1956 | Reorganisation of States on linguistic basis; abolished Part B states; uniform HC for multiple states allowed. |
| 10th | 1961 | Merger of Dadra and Nagar Haveli into Indian Union. |
| 12th | 1962 | Merger of Goa, Daman and Diu into India. |
| 13th | 1962 | Incorporated Nagaland as a State (16th State) with special provisions (Art 371A). |
| 14th | 1962 | Merger of Pondicherry (Puducherry) into India. |
| 21st | 1967 | Added Sindhi to 8th Schedule (15th language). |
| 24th | 1971 | Parliament's power to amend ANY part of Constitution (including FRs). Passed after SC's Golaknath case (1967) ruling. |
| 25th | 1971 | Art 31C: Laws giving effect to Art 39(b)(c) cannot be challenged as violating Art 14, 19. |
| 26th | 1971 | Abolished privy purses and privileges of former rulers of princely states. |
| 36th | 1975 | Sikkim became 22nd State of India (Art 371F). |
| 42nd | 1976 | "Mini-Constitution." Added: DPSP (Arts 39A, 43A, 48A); Fundamental Duties (Art 51A); Preamble words "Socialist, Secular, Integrity"; Parts XIVA (Tribunals); made Parliament supreme over courts; 10-point FD list. |
| 44th | 1978 | Reversed several 42nd Amendment changes; removed Right to Property from FRs (now Art 300A); "armed rebellion" replaced "internal disturbance" in Art 352; Cabinet must give written advice to President for Emergency; Art 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during Emergency. |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-defection law — 10th Schedule added. Speaker/Chairman is the authority; SC held in Kihoto Hollohan case (1992) that Speaker's order is subject to judicial review. |
| 61st | 1988 | Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years (Art 326). |
| 69th | 1991 | Delhi given special status as NCT; Legislative Assembly and Council of Ministers (Art 239AA). |
| 71st | 1992 | Added Konkani, Manipuri (Meitei), Nepali to 8th Schedule (18 languages). |
| 73rd | 1992 | Constitutional status to Panchayati Raj — Part IX added (Arts 243–243O). 11th Schedule: 29 functions. 3-tier structure. Art 243D: 1/3 seats for women. State Election Commission (SEC) for Panchayat elections. |
| 74th | 1992 | Constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies — Part IXA added (Arts 243P–243ZG). 12th Schedule: 18 functions. Art 243T: 1/3 seats for women. Ward Committees in cities over 3 lakh population. |
| 76th | 1994 | Tamil Nadu's 69% reservation included in 9th Schedule (exceeded 50% Indra Sawhney limit). |
| 86th | 2002 | Art 21A: Right to Education as Fundamental Right (6–14 years). Art 45 (DPSP): Early childhood care below 6 years. Art 51A(k): 11th Fundamental Duty — parents to ensure child's education. Implemented by RTE Act 2009. |
| 89th | 2003 | Split National Commission for SC/ST into NCSC (Art 338) and NCST (Art 338A). |
| 91st | 2003 | Council of Ministers (CoM) capped at 15% of total strength of Lok Sabha/State Assembly (minimum 12). Art 75(1A), 164(1A). Anti-defection law tightened — individual defections disallowed (only merger of at least 2/3 of party). |
| 92nd | 2003 | Added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali to 8th Schedule (22 languages — current total). |
| 93rd | 2005 | Art 15(5): Reservation for OBCs in private unaided educational institutions (for admissions). |
| 97th | 2011 | Part IXB added — Constitutional status to Co-operative Societies (Arts 243ZH–243ZT). Partly struck down by SC in 2021. |
| 99th | 2014 | National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) — struck down by SC in 2015 (4:1 majority) as violating basic structure (judicial independence). |
| 100th | 2015 | Land Boundary Agreement with Bangladesh — exchange of enclaves. |
| 101st | 2016 | Goods and Services Tax (GST) — Art 246A (concurrent taxing power), Art 279A (GST Council). One nation, one tax framework. |
| 102nd | 2018 | National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) granted constitutional status — Art 338B. Art 342A: President to specify SEBCs (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes). |
| 103rd | 2019 | 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) — Art 15(6) and Art 16(6). Upheld by SC in November 2022 (3:2 majority). |
| 104th | 2020 | Extended reservation for SC/ST in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies by 10 more years (to 2030). Also removed the reserved seats for Anglo-Indians — Art 331 (LS) and Art 333 (State Assemblies) deleted. |
| 105th | 2021 | Restored States' and UTs' power to make their own OBC lists (restoring position before 102nd Amendment SC interpretation). Art 342A amended to clarify concurrent lists for Centre and States. |
| 106th | 2023 | Women's Reservation Bill — 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies (Art 330A, 332A). Effective after next delimitation exercise and Census. |
📌 Other Frequently Tested Articles
| Article | Subject | Key Note |
|---|---|---|
| 246 | Distribution of legislative powers (3 Lists) | Union List (List I): 98 subjects — only Parliament. State List (List II): 59 subjects — normally only States. Concurrent List (List III): 52 subjects — both; Central law prevails in conflict (Art 254). 7th Schedule. |
| 248 | Residuary powers | Parliament alone has power to legislate on matters NOT in any list. Important: GST was in residuary list before 101st Amendment. |
| 262 | Inter-State water disputes | Parliament can by law exclude SC jurisdiction over inter-state river disputes. Inter-State Water Disputes Act 1956; tribunals constituted (Kaveri, Krishna, Mahadayi, etc.). |
| 263 | Inter-State Council | Set up by Presidential Order (1990) on recommendation of Sarkaria Commission. For coordination, investigation, discussion between Centre and States. Not a permanent constitutional body — President creates it by order. |
| 279A | GST Council | Added by 101st Amendment 2016. Chaired by Union Finance Minister. 1/3 vote weightage to Centre; 2/3 to States. Decisions by 3/4 majority. Quorum = 50% of members. |
| 280 | Finance Commission | Constituted by President every 5 years (or earlier). 5 members including Chairman. Recommends distribution of net proceeds of taxes between Union and States (vertical devolution) and between States (horizontal). Also recommends grants-in-aid to States. |
| 300A | Right to Property | A person shall not be deprived of his property save by authority of law. A constitutional right (not fundamental right) since 44th Amendment 1978. State can acquire property for public purpose with compensation (no longer under Art 31). |
| 312 | All India Services (AIS) | Parliament can create new AIS only if Rajya Sabha passes resolution by Special Majority (2/3 of members present and voting). IAS, IPS, IFoS are current AIS. AIS members serve both Centre and States — recruited by Centre. |
| 315 | Public Service Commissions | UPSC for Union; SPSC for each State. Joint SPSC possible. Art 320: Functions of UPSC. Art 322: Expenses charged to Consolidated Fund (independent of annual votes). |
| 324 | Election Commission of India (ECI) | Superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, President, Vice-President. Multi-member ECI since 1989 (CEC + 2 Election Commissioners). CEC cannot be removed except like SC judge; other ECs can be removed on CEC's recommendation. |
| 326 | Universal Adult Franchise | Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies on basis of adult suffrage. Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 by 61st Amendment 1988. |
| 338 | National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) | Constitutional body. Investigates and monitors safeguards for SCs. Presents report to President. Members: Chairperson + Vice-Chairperson + 3 members — all appointed by President. |
| 343 | Official Language of Union | Hindi in Devanagari script is Official Language. English to be used for official purposes for 15 years after Constitution (1965). Parliament extended use of English indefinitely by Official Languages Act 1963. No "national language" — key UPSC trap. |
| 368 | Amendment of Constitution | Three methods: (1) Simple Majority — some provisions like Art 5, 169, Schedules 1, 4; (2) Special Majority — 2/3 of members present and voting + majority of total membership (most provisions); (3) Special Majority + Ratification by at least half of State Legislatures — Art 54, 55, 73, 162, 241, Part V Chapter IV (SC), 368 itself, 7th Schedule, representation of States in Parliament. |
| 370 | Special status of J&K (Abrogated) | Special provisions for J&K. Abrogated on 5 August 2019 by Presidential Order under Art 370(1). J&K bifurcated into UTs of J&K (with Legislature) and Ladakh (without Legislature) on 31 October 2019. |
UPSC Prelims strategy for Constitution: Focus on article numbers for Rights (12–35), Emergency (352, 356, 360), President/Parliament comparisons, differences between Governor & President (pardoning power, qualifications, removal), and landmark amendments (42nd, 44th, 73rd, 74th, 86th, 101st). UPSC also tests differences: Money Bill vs Financial Bill (Art 110), joint sitting (Art 108 — only ordinary Bills), and what cannot be suspended during Emergency (Arts 20 and 21).