BharatNotes Overview
Health technology is transforming healthcare delivery worldwide — from telemedicine reaching remote villages to mRNA vaccines revolutionising immunology, from genomics enabling personalised medicine to AI diagnosing diseases faster than human radiologists. For UPSC, this topic spans GS3 (Science & Technology) and GS2 (Health, Governance) — questions test understanding of technologies, government schemes (ABDM, eSanjeevani), regulatory frameworks (Medical Devices Rules), and ethical implications.
Telemedicine in India
eSanjeevani — India's National Telemedicine Platform
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | November 2019 (eSanjeevani AB-HWC); April 2020 (eSanjeevani OPD for patient-to-doctor) |
| Ministry | Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) |
| Models | eSanjeevani AB-HWC (provider-assisted — health worker at a village Health and Wellness Centre connects patient to a doctor at a hub hospital); eSanjeevani OPD (direct patient-to-doctor consultation via app/web) |
| Scale (2025) | Over 418 million teleconsultations facilitated; connected to ~1,55,000 public health facilities; ~2,20,000 providers nationwide |
| Utilisation | AB-HWC model accounts for >93% of usage; highest utilisation among women and adults aged 25–45 |
| eSanjeevani 2.0 | Launched March 2023 — enhanced audio-video stability, prescription synchronisation, electronic health record integration |
| AI integration | AI-based clinical decision support system (CDSS) introduced; expanded to 300 symptoms with branching logic (2025) — aids doctors in differential diagnosis |
Telemedicine Practice Guidelines, 2020
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Released | 25 March 2020 — by the Board of Governors, Medical Council of India (in partnership with NITI Aayog) |
| Significance | First-ever formal guidelines for telemedicine practice in India — released just one day after the COVID-19 national lockdown |
| Scope | Covers physician-patient relationship, consent, privacy, prescribing norms, record-keeping, liability, and continuity of care |
| Who can practise | Only Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs); separate guidelines issued for Ayurveda/Siddha/Unani and Homeopathy practitioners |
| Prescribing | Categorised medicines into List O (over-the-counter — can prescribe in first consultation), List A (can prescribe in first consultation for common conditions), and List B (only in follow-up consultations) |
For Mains: eSanjeevani is one of the world's largest government-led telemedicine platforms. Its success demonstrates how technology can bridge India's healthcare access gap — but challenges remain: digital literacy, internet connectivity in rural areas, quality of teleconsultation vs in-person examination, and the risk of over-prescribing antibiotics in teleconsultations.
mRNA Technology
How mRNA Vaccines Work
| Step | Detail |
|---|---|
| 1. Design | Scientists identify a target protein (e.g., the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2) and synthesise the mRNA sequence that codes for it |
| 2. Delivery | The synthetic mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) — tiny fat bubbles that protect the fragile mRNA and help it enter human cells |
| 3. Translation | Once inside the cell, the mRNA instructs the cell's ribosomes to produce the target protein |
| 4. Immune response | The immune system recognises the foreign protein, mounts an immune response (antibodies + T cells), and creates immunological memory |
| 5. Degradation | The mRNA is naturally degraded by the cell within days — it does NOT enter the nucleus or alter DNA |
COVID-19 mRNA Vaccines
| Vaccine | Developer | Efficacy (original strain) | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Comirnaty | Pfizer-BioNTech | ~95% | First mRNA vaccine authorised (December 2020); stored at -70 C initially, later -20 C |
| Spikevax | Moderna | ~94% | Uses a slightly modified mRNA and higher dose; stored at -20 C |
Future mRNA Applications
| Application | Status (2025–26) |
|---|---|
| Cancer vaccines | Personalised mRNA cancer vaccines in clinical trials (Moderna + Merck — melanoma); mRNA instructs cells to produce tumour-specific antigens, training the immune system to attack cancer cells |
| Malaria | Current RTS,S vaccine (Mosquirix) is only ~40% effective and requires annual doses; mRNA-based malaria vaccines under development aim for higher efficacy and longer-lasting immunity |
| Influenza | mRNA flu vaccines in Phase 3 trials; could enable faster annual vaccine updates (weeks vs months for traditional egg-based production) |
| HIV | Early-stage mRNA vaccine trials underway; challenges remain due to HIV's extreme genetic variability |
| Autoimmune diseases | mRNA technology being explored for tolerance-inducing vaccines — training the immune system NOT to attack self-tissues (e.g., in multiple sclerosis) |
For Prelims: mRNA vaccines do NOT alter DNA. They work by instructing cells to produce a target protein, triggering an immune response. The mRNA degrades naturally within days. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the delivery mechanism. The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman for their foundational work on nucleoside base modifications that made mRNA vaccines possible.
Genomics
Human Genome Project (HGP)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Duration | 1990–2003 (13 years) |
| Lead agencies | US Department of Energy + National Institutes of Health (NIH); international consortium including UK, France, Germany, Japan, China |
| Achievement | Mapped the entire human genome — approximately 3.2 billion base pairs across 23 pairs of chromosomes |
| Genes identified | ~20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes (far fewer than the initially expected 100,000) |
| Cost | ~USD 2.7 billion (1990 dollars); today, a whole genome can be sequenced for under USD 200 |
| Significance | Foundation for personalised medicine, pharmacogenomics, genetic diagnostics, and gene therapy |
Genome India Project (GIP)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | 2020; led by Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore |
| Completed | January 2025 — announced completion of 10,000 whole-genome sequences |
| Scope | 20,000 samples collected from 83 diverse populations across India; 10,000 genomes sequenced and made publicly accessible |
| Data platform | Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) — India's first national repository for life science data; Framework for Exchange of Data Protocols (FeED) launched |
| Key findings | 5,750 jointly genotyped samples revealed rare genetic variations unique to Indian populations — important for pharmacogenomics and disease risk assessment |
| Future plans | Comprehensive coverage of all linguistic/ethnic groups, tribal and under-represented populations, and all states/UTs |
| Recognition | Featured in Nature Genetics (April 2025) |
Pharmacogenomics
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Definition | The study of how an individual's genetic makeup affects their response to drugs — enabling personalised medicine |
| Application | Identifying which patients will respond to a drug, which will not, and which are at risk of adverse reactions — before prescribing |
| Examples | Warfarin dosing (varies by CYP2C9 genotype); cancer treatment selection based on tumour genomic profiling; codeine metabolism (CYP2D6 variants) |
| India relevance | Genome India data will enable India-specific pharmacogenomic databases — critical because drug responses vary across populations |
For Mains: The Genome India Project is India's most significant genomics initiative. Its completion in January 2025 provides the foundation for precision medicine tailored to India's genetically diverse population. However, ethical challenges remain — data privacy, potential for genetic discrimination (insurance, employment), and equitable access to genomic medicine.
AI in Healthcare
Applications
| Application | How It Works | Current Status |
|---|---|---|
| Medical imaging / Radiology | Deep learning algorithms analyse X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and retinal images to detect diseases (cancer, diabetic retinopathy, tuberculosis) | FDA/CDSCO-approved AI tools in use; some outperform human radiologists in specific tasks |
| Drug discovery | AI models predict molecular interactions, identify drug candidates, and simulate clinical trials — reducing development time from 10+ years to potentially 2–3 years | AlphaFold (DeepMind) predicted structures of 200 million+ proteins; AI-designed drugs entering clinical trials |
| Clinical decision support | AI analyses patient data (symptoms, history, lab results) to suggest diagnoses and treatment options | eSanjeevani's CDSS — covers 300 symptoms with branching logic |
| Pathology | AI-powered digital pathology analyses tissue samples for cancer detection and grading | Reduces turnaround time; improves consistency of diagnosis |
| Epidemic prediction | ML models analyse epidemiological data, mobility patterns, and environmental factors to predict disease outbreaks | Used during COVID-19 for forecasting case trajectories |
Challenges of AI in Healthcare
| Challenge | Detail |
|---|---|
| Data quality | AI models are only as good as their training data — biased or incomplete datasets lead to unreliable outputs |
| Regulatory gaps | India lacks a comprehensive AI-specific regulatory framework for healthcare; Medical Devices Rules 2017 cover hardware but AI-as-a-medical-device (SaMD) regulation is evolving |
| Accountability | If an AI system misdiagnoses, who is liable — the developer, the hospital, or the doctor who relied on it? |
| Equity | AI tools developed on Western populations may not perform well on Indian patients with different disease profiles and genetic backgrounds |
| Black box problem | Deep learning models often cannot explain their reasoning — clinicians may not trust or understand AI recommendations |
Medical Devices — Regulation and Manufacturing
Medical Devices Rules, 2017
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Governing law | Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 + Medical Devices Rules, 2017 (amended 2020) |
| Regulator | Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare |
| Classification | Devices classified into 4 risk categories (Class A — lowest risk to Class D — highest risk); classification determines the level of regulatory scrutiny |
| Coverage | Registration, manufacturing, import, labelling, sale, clinical investigation, and post-market surveillance |
| Key amendment (2020) | All medical devices brought under regulatory purview — previously, only a limited list of devices was regulated |
PLI Scheme for Medical Devices
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Objective | Promote high-value domestic manufacturing of medical devices; reduce import dependence (India imports ~80% of medical devices) |
| Approved projects | 26 projects approved with committed investment of Rs 1,206 crore; Rs 714 crore invested so far |
| Medical Device Parks | 4 parks being set up — Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh |
| Target devices | CT/PET scanners, MRI machines, cardiac stents, orthopaedic implants, dialysis machines, ventilators |
For Prelims: Medical Devices Rules 2017 — regulator is CDSCO; 4 risk classes (A to D); PLI scheme for medical devices covers 26 approved projects; 4 Medical Device Parks in HP, MP, TN, UP.
Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)
Core Components
| Component | Detail |
|---|---|
| ABHA (Ayushman Bharat Health Account) | Unique 14-digit health ID for every Indian citizen; linked to Aadhaar; can be created via abha.abdm.gov.in or the ABHA App |
| Health Records | Longitudinal electronic health records linked to ABHA ID — medical history, prescriptions, lab results, discharge summaries travel with the patient across hospitals |
| Health Facility Registry (HFR) | Comprehensive database of all healthcare facilities — public and private |
| Health Professional Registry (HPR) | Digital registry of all healthcare professionals — doctors, nurses, paramedics |
| Scan & Share | QR-code-based OPD registration — patients scan a QR code at the hospital to register instantly using their ABHA ID |
Scale (as of January 2026)
| Metric | Figure |
|---|---|
| ABHA IDs created | 84.79 crore (848 million) |
| Health records linked | 82.69 crore |
| New ABHA IDs in FY 2025–26 | 8.79 crore |
| Leading state | Uttar Pradesh — 14.3 crore+ ABHA registrations |
For Mains: ABDM is India's most ambitious digital health initiative. The vision is a unified national health ecosystem where every citizen has a digital health identity, and their medical records are portable across all healthcare providers. However, challenges include: interoperability between different hospital software systems, data privacy (health data is highly sensitive), digital literacy among patients and providers, and the risk of a digital divide excluding the poorest and most remote populations.
Gene Therapy and CRISPR
Gene Therapy
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Definition | Treating or preventing disease by introducing, altering, or replacing genetic material within a patient's cells |
| Types | Somatic gene therapy — targets non-reproductive cells; changes are NOT passed to offspring; ethically accepted. Germline gene therapy — targets reproductive cells; changes ARE heritable; ethically controversial and banned in most countries |
| Approved therapies | Luxturna (inherited retinal dystrophy, 2017); Zolgensma (spinal muscular atrophy, 2019); Casgevy (sickle cell disease — first CRISPR-based therapy approved, 2023) |
| India | Clinical trials underway; regulatory framework through RCGM (Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation) and GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee) |
CRISPR-Cas9
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| What | A gene-editing tool that allows precise cutting and modification of DNA at specific locations — like "molecular scissors" |
| Discovery | Developed as a gene-editing tool by Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2020) |
| How it works | A guide RNA directs the Cas9 enzyme to a specific DNA sequence; Cas9 cuts the DNA; the cell's repair mechanisms then fix the break — genes can be deleted, corrected, or inserted |
| Applications | Sickle cell disease treatment (Casgevy), cancer immunotherapy, agricultural crop improvement, disease-resistant livestock, malaria vector control (gene drives) |
| Ethical concerns | Off-target edits (unintended mutations); germline editing (heritable changes); equity of access; the "designer baby" debate — the He Jiankui case (2018) in China, where twin embryos were edited, drew global condemnation |
For Prelims: CRISPR-Cas9 = Nobel Prize 2020 (Doudna and Charpentier). Casgevy = first CRISPR-based therapy approved (sickle cell disease, 2023). CRISPR does NOT create new genes — it edits existing DNA.
Wearable Health Technology
| Device Type | Examples | Health Application |
|---|---|---|
| Smartwatches | Apple Watch, Samsung Galaxy Watch, Noise, boAt | Heart rate monitoring, ECG (electrocardiogram), blood oxygen (SpO2), fall detection, sleep tracking |
| Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs) | FreeStyle Libre, Dexcom | Real-time blood glucose tracking for diabetes management — eliminates painful finger pricks |
| Smart rings | Oura Ring | Sleep quality, body temperature, heart rate variability — used for early illness detection |
| Patch sensors | BioSticker, VitalConnect | Continuous monitoring of heart rhythm, respiratory rate, temperature — used in hospitals and home care |
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| What | Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist drugs that once killed them — making infections harder to treat |
| Scale | AMR directly caused an estimated 1.27 million deaths globally in 2019 (The Lancet); projected to cause 10 million deaths/year by 2050 if unchecked |
| India's burden | India is among the highest consumers of antibiotics globally; irrational prescribing, over-the-counter antibiotic sales, and antibiotic use in agriculture drive resistance |
| Key pathogens | ESKAPE pathogens: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp. |
| India's response | National Action Plan on AMR (2017–2021); AMR surveillance network (ICMR); Delhi Declaration on AMR (2017); Red Line Campaign (mark antibiotics with a red line — not to be sold without prescription) |
| Global response | WHO Global Action Plan on AMR (2015); WHO AWaRe classification of antibiotics (Access, Watch, Reserve) |
One Health Approach
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Definition | An integrated approach recognising that human health, animal health, and environmental health are interconnected — addressing health threats at the human-animal-environment interface |
| Relevance | ~75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic (originate in animals) — COVID-19, Ebola, Nipah, avian influenza, mpox |
| India | National One Health Mission launched; ICMR, ICAR, and MoEFCC coordinate on zoonotic disease surveillance |
| International | Quadripartite: WHO + FAO + WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health) + UNEP jointly lead the One Health approach |
For Mains: One Health is increasingly relevant for UPSC — it connects science (zoonotic diseases, AMR), governance (inter-ministerial coordination), and environment (deforestation driving human-wildlife contact). Questions often ask: "Discuss the One Health approach in the context of emerging infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance."
UPSC Relevance
Prelims Focus Areas
- eSanjeevani: launched 2019; 418 million+ consultations (2025); MoHFW
- Telemedicine Practice Guidelines: 25 March 2020; by Board of Governors, MCI
- mRNA vaccines: do NOT alter DNA; LNP delivery; Kariko and Weissman — Nobel Prize 2023
- Human Genome Project: 1990–2003; ~3.2 billion base pairs; ~20,000–25,000 genes
- Genome India Project: completed January 2025; 10,000 genomes; 83 populations; IISc Bangalore-led
- ABHA: 14-digit health ID; 84.79 crore IDs created (January 2026)
- Medical Devices Rules 2017: CDSCO; 4 risk classes (A–D)
- AMR: 1.27 million deaths (2019); ESKAPE pathogens; WHO AWaRe classification
- One Health: WHO + FAO + WOAH + UNEP (Quadripartite)
Mains Focus Areas
- Telemedicine as a tool for healthcare equity — potential and limitations in rural India
- mRNA technology — beyond COVID: cancer vaccines, malaria, and the platform's revolutionary potential
- Genomics and personalised medicine — Genome India Project's significance for India's diverse population
- AI in healthcare — opportunities, regulatory challenges, accountability, and equity concerns
- Digital health ecosystem (ABDM) — vision vs ground reality; data privacy; digital divide
- AMR as a silent pandemic — India's role as both part of the problem and part of the solution
- One Health — integrating human, animal, and environmental health governance
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) — 64 Crore ABHA IDs by 2024
The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) reached 64 crore (640 million) Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) ID registrations by 2024. ABHA IDs are 14-digit unique health identifiers allowing citizens to store, share, and access their medical records digitally. The ABDM's Health Facility Registry covered 2.5 lakh+ health facilities; the Healthcare Professionals Registry linked 5+ lakh doctors.
The National Health Claims Exchange (NHCX) — enabling real-time insurance claims processing — was operationalised in 2024, with 30+ major insurers and TPAs (Third Party Administrators) integrated. The Unified Health Interface (UHI), analogous to UPI for healthcare, allows patients to discover and book health services from any platform interoperably. However, ABDM faces adoption challenges: rural connectivity, digital literacy gaps, and resistance from private sector to standardised data sharing.
UPSC angle: ABDM, ABHA ID (64 crore registrations), NHCX, UHI, and digital health governance are Prelims and Mains GS-2/GS-3 content.
Medical Devices Regulation — Drugs and Medical Devices Act 2023
The Drugs and Medical Devices Act 2023 (replacing the relevant portions of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940) established a dedicated regulatory framework for medical devices in India. Key provisions include: risk-based classification of devices (Class A-D, from lowest to highest risk); mandatory clinical performance evaluation for Class C and D devices; post-market surveillance obligations; and a Medical Device Single Window Portal for registration.
India's medical devices market is approximately $12 billion (2024) and is projected to reach $50 billion by 2030. India imports approximately 70% of high-value medical devices (CT scanners, MRI, cardiac stents, orthopedic implants). The PLI scheme for medical devices (₹3,420 crore) incentivises domestic manufacturing, particularly in target segments: cancer care equipment, radiology, radiotherapy devices, and implants.
UPSC angle: Medical Devices Act 2023, Class A-D risk classification, India's import dependence (~70%), and PLI for medical devices are Prelims and Mains content.
AI in Healthcare — Diagnostics and Drug Discovery 2024
AI-assisted diagnostics emerged as a major healthcare technology trend in 2024. ICMR-partnered AI tools for TB detection from chest X-rays (qXR by Qure.ai), diabetic retinopathy screening (Remidio's AI platform), and cervical cancer detection are deployed at scale in India's public health system. The National AI in Health portal (MoHFW) registered 45+ validated AI diagnostic tools by 2024.
In drug discovery, AI platforms like Innoplexus (Germany-India partnership) and Insilico Medicine's India operations accelerated drug repurposing and lead compound identification. The Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) in 2024 allocated ₹500 crore for AI-biotech convergence projects under BioE3 Policy. The challenge of regulatory frameworks for AI-based medical devices — particularly adaptive AI that updates its algorithms post-deployment — is being addressed by CDSCO's 2024 draft guidelines.
UPSC angle: AI diagnostics deployment (TB, diabetic retinopathy, cervical cancer), CDSCO AI medical device guidelines, and AI-drug discovery linkages are Mains GS-3/GS-2 content.
Vocabulary
Pharmacogenomics
- Pronunciation: /ˌfɑːrməkoʊdʒɪˈnɒmɪks/
- Definition: The branch of genomics that studies how an individual's genetic makeup influences their response to pharmaceutical drugs, enabling the selection of optimal drug types and dosages tailored to a patient's genotype — the foundation of personalised or precision medicine.
- Origin: A portmanteau of pharmacology (from Greek pharmakon, "drug") and genomics (from Greek genos, "race, kind" + the -omics suffix denoting comprehensive study); the field emerged in the late 1990s as the Human Genome Project made large-scale genetic analysis feasible.
Telemedicine
- Pronunciation: /ˌtɛlɪˈmɛdɪsɪn/
- Definition: The delivery of healthcare services — consultation, diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring — remotely through telecommunications technology (video, audio, or text), enabling patients to access medical expertise without physical travel to a healthcare facility.
- Origin: From Greek tele (τῆλε, "far off, at a distance") + Latin medicina ("the healing art"); early telemedicine experiments date to the 1960s (NASA's remote health monitoring of astronauts), but the field expanded dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic with platforms like eSanjeevani.
Bioprinting
- Pronunciation: /ˈbaɪoʊˌprɪntɪŋ/
- Definition: A specialised form of 3D printing that uses living cells, biomaterials (bioinks), and growth factors to fabricate biological structures layer by layer — including tissues, organs, and organ models for drug testing and transplantation research.
- Origin: From Greek bios (βίος, "life") + English printing; the first bioprinting experiments were conducted in the early 2000s using modified inkjet printers to deposit cells; the field has since advanced to printing vascularised tissues and functional organ models.
Key Terms
Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)
- Pronunciation: /ˈaɪjʊʃmɑːn ˈbɑːrət ˈdɪdʒɪtəl ˈmɪʃən/
- Definition: India's national digital health ecosystem launched in September 2021 by the National Health Authority (NHA), creating a unified framework of health IDs (ABHA), electronic health records, health facility and professional registries, and interoperable digital health services to ensure that every citizen's medical history is portable, secure, and accessible across all healthcare providers.
- Context: As of January 2026, over 84.79 crore ABHA IDs have been created, with 82.69 crore health records linked; the Scan & Share feature enables instant OPD registration at hospitals; key challenges include interoperability, data privacy, digital literacy, and bridging the urban-rural digital divide.
- UPSC Relevance: GS2 (Health, Governance), GS3 (Science & Technology). Prelims: ABHA = 14-digit health ID; launched September 2021; NHA is the implementing agency. Mains: asked to evaluate India's digital health infrastructure — ABDM's vision of a paperless, portable health record system, its implementation challenges, and its role in achieving Universal Health Coverage.
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
- Pronunciation: /ˌæntɪmaɪˈkroʊbiəl rɪˈzɪstəns/
- Definition: The ability of microorganisms — bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites — to survive and multiply in the presence of antimicrobial drugs (antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals) that were previously effective against them, rendering standard treatments ineffective and transforming once-treatable infections into potentially lethal conditions.
- Context: AMR directly caused an estimated 1.27 million deaths globally in 2019 (The Lancet); driven by irrational prescribing, over-the-counter antibiotic sales, incomplete courses, and antibiotic use in agriculture; India launched the National Action Plan on AMR (2017) and the Red Line Campaign; the WHO classifies antibiotics into Access, Watch, and Reserve (AWaRe) categories to guide rational use.
- UPSC Relevance: GS3 (Science & Technology), GS2 (Health). Prelims: AMR deaths (1.27 million, 2019), ESKAPE pathogens, WHO AWaRe classification, Red Line Campaign. Mains: asked to discuss AMR as a "silent pandemic" — India's dual role as both a major antibiotic consumer and a key manufacturer; the One Health approach to combating AMR; and the need for new antibiotics, rapid diagnostics, and antibiotic stewardship programmes.
Sources: MoHFW (esanjeevani.mohfw.gov.in), pib.gov.in (Genome India, ABDM), Nature Genetics (Genome India Project, April 2025), WHO (AMR Global Action Plan, One Health), The Lancet (AMR burden study), CDSCO (Medical Devices Rules 2017), Penn Medicine (mRNA vaccine development), Nobel Prize Committee (2023 — Kariko and Weissman)
