Eastern India Powers — Palas, Pratiharas & Rashtrakutas (Tripartite Struggle)

Introduction

The period from the 8th to the 12th century CE in India is defined by a remarkable triangular contest for supremacy over the Gangetic plains — particularly the throne of Kannauj, then the most coveted imperial seat in northern India. The three protagonists were the Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar, the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty of Rajasthan and northern India, and the Rashtrakuta dynasty of the Deccan. Alongside this tripartite struggle, this era witnessed remarkable Buddhist scholarship, distinctive temple architecture, and the last great empires before the Turko-Afghan invasions transformed the subcontinent permanently.

The Pala Dynasty (c. 750–1174 CE)

Founding and Political Context

After a long period of political anarchy in Bengal following the decline of Shashanka's Gauda kingdom, the feudal chiefs of Bengal collectively chose Gopala (c. 750–770 CE) as their ruler — one of the rare instances in Indian history of an "elected" king. The Khalimpur copper-plate inscription of Dharmapala attests to this origin.

Gopala founded the Pala dynasty, which would rule Bengal and Bihar for over four centuries, becoming the last great empire of eastern India before the Turkic invasions.

Key Rulers

Dharmapala (c. 770–810 CE) — The Empire Builder

• Dharmapala was the greatest Pala ruler; under him, the empire stretched from Bengal westward, temporarily capturing Kannauj and installing a Pratihara subordinate there
• A devout Buddhist, he founded Vikramashila Mahavihara — located at modern Antichak village, Bhagalpur district, Bihar (on the Ganga's south bank); Vikramashila became one of India's two greatest centres of Buddhist learning alongside Nalanda
• He also patronised Nalanda and founded Odantapuri (near Nalanda)
• His campaigns brought him into direct conflict with both the Pratiharas (under Nagabhata II) and the Rashtrakutas — the three-way struggle for Kannauj

Devapala (c. 810–855 CE) — The Conquering King

• Devapala expanded the empire further; inscriptions claim conquests extending to Assam, Orissa, the Himalayas, and even parts of the Deccan (claims are likely exaggerated but indicate great power)
• Continued patronage of Buddhism; the Srivijaya (Indonesia) king sent an ambassador requesting grants for the maintenance of a monastery at Nalanda — reflecting Pala Buddhism's international reach
• Under Devapala, the Palas reached their territorial zenith

Later Palas and Decline

• After Devapala, the dynasty declined through succession disputes; briefly revived under Mahipala I (c. 988–1038 CE) who recovered Bengal and Bihar from Chola raids
• The dynasty effectively ended around 1161–1174 CE, overthrown by the Sena dynasty of Bengal
• The final blow to Pala-era Buddhist institutions came when Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Nalanda (c. 1193) and Vikramashila (c. 1203)

Pala Buddhism — Vajrayana

• Palas were ardent patrons of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism (tantric Buddhist tradition, also called Mantrayana or Tantrayana)
• Vikramashila and Nalanda under Pala patronage became international centres — scholars travelled from Tibet, China, and Southeast Asia
• Atiśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna (980–1054 CE), the greatest Buddhist scholar of his era, was associated with Vikramashila; he later reformed Buddhism in Tibet
• Pala-era Buddhist art (bronzes, manuscript illustrations) became the canonical style that influenced Tibetan, Nepali, and Southeast Asian Buddhist iconography
• The Pala school of sculpture: characterised by sensuously modelled figures, dense jewellery, elaborate halos; major bronze Buddhas from this era are museum masterpieces

The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (c. 8th–11th Century CE)

Origins and Overview

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were a Rajput clan originating in Rajasthan (their homeland was the Gurjaradesa — modern Rajasthan/Gujarat). The name "Pratihara" means "doorkeeper" — tradition holds they were originally doorkeepers of a deity. They rose from regional rulers of Mandor (Jodhpur area) to become the dominant power of northern India.

Key Rulers

Nagabhata I (c. 730–756 CE)

• The first great Pratihara ruler; famous for defeating the Arab army under the governor Junaid advancing from Sindh — credited with halting Arab expansion into the Indian heartland
• Established Pratihara power in Avanti (Ujjain region)

Nagabhata II (c. 805–833 CE)

• Defeated Pala emperor Dharmapala's forces at Kannauj; made Kannauj the Pratihara capital
• Fought back Rashtrakuta king Govinda III who had briefly captured Kannauj

Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE) — The Greatest Pratihara Ruler

• The dynasty reached its peak under Mihira Bhoja (also called Bhoja I); his empire stretched from the Sutlej in the northwest to Bengal in the east and the Narmada in the south
• Arab traveller Sulaiman (851 CE) and later Al-Masudi praised the Pratihara army's strength — particularly their cavalry
• Mihira Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and used the title Adivaraha (primordial boar — a Vishnu avatar); the title appears on his coins
• The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty declined after Mihira Bhoja's successors faced Rashtrakuta raids (Indra III sacked Kannauj in 916 CE) and growing Rajput feudatories broke away

Significance

The Pratiharas are credited with protecting northern India from Arab expansion from the west for over a century. Their patronage of art (Khajuraho's early temples were built by their feudatories, the Chandelas) shaped medieval North Indian culture.

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753–982 CE)

Founding

Dantidurga (c. 735–756 CE) founded the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta (near modern Sholapur, Maharashtra) by defeating Kirtivarman II of the Badami Chalukya dynasty in 753 CE. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753 CE) is the foundational inscription of the dynasty.

Key Rulers

Krishna I (c. 756–773 CE)

• Nephew of Dantidurga; consolidated the empire
• Built the Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Cave 16) — the most spectacular achievement of Rashtrakuta patronage; the temple was carved entirely from a single basalt rock face, top-down, over several decades; attributed primarily to Krishna I by inscriptional evidence (though some scholars suggest completion over multiple reigns)
• The Kailasa temple is the largest monolithic structure in the world, carved from a single rock

Dhruva (c. 780–793 CE)

• First Rashtrakuta king to successfully intervene in the Kannauj contest — defeated both Pratihara and Pala armies, asserting Deccan supremacy in the tripartite struggle

Govinda III (c. 793–814 CE)

• Most powerful military Rashtrakuta king; defeated both Nagabhata II (Pratihara) and Dharmapala (Pala); temporarily held Kannauj; campaigned up to the Himalayas

Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 CE) — The Scholar King

• Longest-reigning Rashtrakuta ruler; not a great warrior but a great patron of culture and learning
• Wrote Kavirajamarga — the oldest surviving work of literary criticism in Kannada; a landmark in Kannada literature
• Was a devout Jain; known for his piety, possibly performing ritual hand-offering (sallekhana-related gesture) to the goddess Mahalakshmi
• Court poet Jinasena wrote major Jain philosophical texts under his patronage

Indra IV (c. 973–982 CE) — last Rashtrakuta king; became a Jain monk and performed sallekhana at Shravanabelagola (March 982 CE), ending the dynasty

Ellora and Rashtrakuta Art

The Rashtrakutas were the greatest patrons of the Ellora cave complex:

• Caves 14–29 (Hindu caves): The most spectacular; Cave 16 = Kailasa Temple
• Kailasa Temple features: ~2x the area of the Parthenon (Greece); carved from a single basalt outcrop; depicts scenes from Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Puranas; Ravana shaking Mount Kailash panel is iconic; ~200,000 tonnes of rock removed
• Also patronised Jain caves at Ellora (Caves 30–34)

The Eastern Ganga Dynasty of Orissa and Konark

The Eastern Ganga dynasty ruled Odisha (Kalinga) from c. 1078–1434 CE — separate from the early medieval landscape but significant for their architectural legacy.

• Anantavarman Chodaganga (c. 1078–1147 CE): Founded the dynasty's greatest phase; built the Jagannath Temple at Puri (c. 1135 CE)
• Narasimhadeva I (c. 1238–1264 CE): Built the Konark Sun Temple (Surya Deul) — a masterpiece of Kalinga architecture; designed as a giant chariot of the Sun god with 24 wheels and 7 horses; now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Tripartite Struggle — Key Summary

Exam Strategy

For Prelims:

• Pala founder: Gopala (~750 CE); greatest ruler: Dharmapala
• Vikramashila: founded by Dharmapala; location — Antichak, Bhagalpur, Bihar
• Rashtrakuta founder: Dantidurga (753 CE); Kailasa Temple builder: Krishna I
• Amoghavarsha: wrote Kavirajamarga — oldest Kannada literary criticism text
• Konark Sun Temple: built by Narasimhadeva I of Eastern Ganga dynasty
• Tripartite struggle: over Kannauj; involved Palas + Pratiharas + Rashtrakutas

For Mains (GS1 Art & Culture / History):

• Tripartite struggle: context (Kannauj's prestige) + three dynasties + outcome (none gained permanent control; weakened all three before Turkic invasions)
• Pala Buddhism: Vajrayana + Vikramashila + international connections (Atiśa → Tibet) + artistic legacy (bronze sculpture style)
• Rashtrakuta cultural achievement: Ellora (Kailasa Temple) + Kannada literature (Kavirajamarga) + religious pluralism (Hindu, Buddhist, Jain patronage)
• Note: The weakening of all three dynasties through a century of mutual conflict is seen as a structural factor facilitating subsequent Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions of northern India