Overview

The late 1920s and early 1930s saw the freedom struggle escalate dramatically — from the demand for Dominion Status to the declaration of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence), and from individual protests to the mass Civil Disobedience Movement anchored by Gandhi's iconic Dandi March.

Simon Commission (1927–1928)

Detail Fact
Appointed November 1927 (two years ahead of the scheduled 1929 review of the 1919 Act)
Chairman Sir John Simon
Composition 7 British parliamentarians — no Indian members (an all-white body); members included Clement Attlee (future PM), Viscount Burnham, Edward Cadogan, Vernon Hartshorn, George Lane-Fox, and Donald Howard
Purpose Review the working of the Government of India Act, 1919
Why no Indians British argued Indians could not be impartial about their own constitution — deeply offensive to Indians
Indian reaction Massive protests with the slogan "Simon Go Back"; boycotted by Congress, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, and most Indian parties
Lathi charge at Lahore When the Commission visited Lahore on 30 October 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai led a non-violent protest march. Police Superintendent James A. Scott ordered a brutal lathi charge and personally assaulted Rai. Despite severe injuries, Rai addressed the crowd at Mochi Gate the same evening, declaring: "The blows struck at me today will be the last nails in the coffin of British rule in India." He died 18 days later on 17 November 1928
Aftermath Bhagat Singh and Rajguru shot British officer J.P. Saunders (mistaking him for Scott) on 17 December 1928 to avenge Lajpat Rai's death

Nehru Report (1928)

Detail Fact
Context Lord Birkenhead (Secretary of State) challenged Indians to draft their own constitution; the All Parties Conference took up the challenge
Committee All Parties Conference appointed a committee chaired by Motilal Nehru; Jawaharlal Nehru was Secretary; submitted at the Lucknow session on 28 August 1928
Status demanded Dominion Status for India — same constitutional standing as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Irish Free State within the British Commonwealth
Key recommendations (1) Joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities; (2) 19 fundamental rights including equal rights for men and women, right to form unions, freedom of conscience, free elementary education, and universal adult suffrage; (3) Federal structure with residuary powers at the Centre; (4) Responsible government at both Centre and provinces; (5) No state religion
Legacy of rights 10 of the 19 fundamental rights recommended re-appear materially unchanged in the Indian Constitution of 1950; 3 others were included in the Directive Principles
Jinnah's rejection Called it a "Hindu Document"; countered with his Fourteen Points (March 1929) — demanding separate electorates, one-third Muslim representation in central legislature, and other safeguards
Youth opposition Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose demanded Purna Swaraj instead of Dominion Status; disagreed with the older generation

Lahore Congress Session (December 1929)

Feature Detail
President Jawaharlal Nehru (age 40 — reflecting the generational shift)
Resolution Congress adopted Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal on 19 December 1929 — rejecting Dominion Status
Midnight flag hoisting On the midnight of 31 December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag on the banks of the River Ravi in Lahore before a massive crowd
26 January 1930 Celebrated as the first Independence Day (Purna Swaraj Day) — Congress volunteers and citizens across India hoisted the national flag; the date was later chosen as Republic Day
Authorisation Congress Working Committee authorised Gandhi to launch a civil disobedience campaign at a time and place of his choosing

The Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (1930)

Gandhi's Eleven Demands

Before launching CDM, Gandhi sent his Eleven Points to Viceroy Lord Irwin (2 March 1930) — including reduction of land revenue, abolition of the salt tax, release of political prisoners, and reduction of military expenditure. Irwin ignored them.

The March

Detail Fact
Dates 12 March 1930 to 6 April 1930 (24 days)
Route Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad) to Dandi (coastal village in Gujarat)
Distance 387 km (240 miles)
Participants Gandhi started with 78 trusted volunteers (carefully selected from the ashram); thousands joined along the way
The Act On 6 April 1930 at 8:30 AM, Gandhi picked up a lump of natural salt from the mudflats, breaking the British Salt Law
Why salt? Salt was a universal commodity used by every Indian — rich or poor, Hindu or Muslim; taxing salt was a symbol of British oppression of the poorest; breaking the salt law was an act of defiance anyone could replicate
Spread Salt Satyagraha spread across India — millions made or bought illegal salt; in Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a march to Vedaranyam; in Peshawar, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led the Khudai Khidmatgar (Red Shirts)
Government response Over 60,000 people arrested by the end of 1930; Gandhi arrested 4 May 1930

Spread of Civil Disobedience

The movement spread rapidly beyond the salt issue:

  • Forest satyagraha — tribal and peasant communities violated forest laws across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Central Provinces
  • No-tax campaigns — peasants in Gujarat (Bardoli, Kheda) and United Provinces refused to pay land revenue and chaukidari tax
  • Women's participation — Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, and Amina Tyabji led protests, picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor, made salt, and courted arrest in large numbers; women's mass entry into the national movement was a defining feature of the CDM
  • Regional marches — In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a march to Vedaranyam; in the North-West Frontier, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led the Khudai Khidmatgar (Red Shirts)

Dharasana Salt Works Raid (21 May 1930)

Feature Detail
Led by Sarojini Naidu and Imam Saheb (Gandhi was already in jail since 4 May 1930)
What happened ~2,500 non-violent protesters marched toward the Dharasana Salt Works (about 150 miles north of Bombay); beaten with steel-tipped lathis by police; not a single protester raised an arm in defence
Witness American journalist Webb Miller (United Press) reported the event; his eyewitness account was published in over 1,000 newspapers worldwide. He wrote: "In eighteen years of reporting in twenty-two countries... I have never witnessed such harrowing scenes as at Dharasana"
Impact Turned world opinion decisively against British colonial rule; demonstrated the moral power of non-violent resistance; discussed in the British Parliament

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931)

Provision Detail
Congress agreed to (1) Suspend Civil Disobedience; (2) Participate in the Round Table Conference
Government agreed to (1) Release political prisoners (not those charged with violence); (2) Permit salt manufacture by coastal residents; (3) Restore confiscated properties; (4) Permit peaceful picketing
Significance The British negotiated with Gandhi as an equal — a major symbolic victory; but Viceroy refused to commute death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru (executed 23 March 1931)
Churchill's fury Winston Churchill denounced the Pact, calling it "the nauseating and humiliating spectacle of this one-time Inner Temple lawyer, now seditious fakir, striding half-naked up the steps of the Viceroy's palace, there to negotiate and parley on equal terms with the representative of the King Emperor"
Criticism The pact achieved very limited concrete gains; critics said Gandhi compromised too much; Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose were disappointed; revolutionaries were outraged that Gandhi did not press for commutation of Bhagat Singh's death sentence

Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)

First RTC (November 1930 – January 1931)

Feature Detail
Venue Royal Institute of International Affairs, London
Delegates 89 participants — 16 from British political parties, 58 from British India, and representatives from princely states
Congress Boycotted — the Civil Disobedience Movement was ongoing
Key participants B.R. Ambedkar (Depressed Classes), Tej Bahadur Sapru, M.A. Jinnah, Aga Khan III
Major outcome Princely states offered to join an All-India Federation — provided their internal sovereignty was guaranteed; this was a significant breakthrough
Limitation Without Congress — the largest political party — no constitutional agreement could be final

Second RTC (September – December 1931)

Feature Detail
Congress representation Gandhi attended as the sole Congress representative (under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact); accompanied by Sarojini Naidu, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and G.D. Birla
Gandhi's claim Congress alone represented all of political India — minorities, princes, and other groups disagreed sharply
Communal deadlock No agreement on minority representation; Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Depressed Classes; Muslims insisted on retaining separate electorates; Gandhi opposed both
Outcome Complete failure on the communal question; British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced he would impose his own solution — leading to the Communal Award

Third RTC (17 November – 24 December 1932)

Feature Detail
Delegates Only 46 delegates attended
Boycott Congress did not attend (leaders including Gandhi were in jail); the British Labour Party also boycotted
Outcome Recommendations published in a White Paper (March 1933); debated in Parliament; eventually shaped the Government of India Act, 1935

Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932)

Communal Award (16 August 1932)

Feature Detail
Issued by British PM Ramsay MacDonald
Date 16 August 1932
Provision Granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes (Dalits) — in addition to Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans
Seats for Depressed Classes 71 seats reserved in provincial legislatures under the separate electorate system
Implication Dalits would vote only for Dalit candidates in reserved constituencies — creating a separate political identity distinct from the Hindu fold

Gandhi's Fast and the Poona Pact

Feature Detail
Gandhi's objection Separate electorates for Dalits would permanently divide Hindu society; he saw Dalits as integral to the Hindu fold
Fast unto death Gandhi began an indefinite fast in Yeravada Jail (Pune) on 20 September 1932
Negotiations Intense negotiations between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar under enormous public pressure (Gandhi's life was at stake)
Poona Pact Signed 24 September 1932 at 5 PM in Yeravada Central Jail — separate electorates replaced by reserved seats within joint electorates (all voters could vote, but seats were reserved for Depressed Classes); reserved seats in provincial legislatures increased from 71 to 148; 18% of seats in the Central Legislature reserved for Depressed Classes
Ambedkar's view Ambedkar accepted the pact under duress — he believed separate electorates were necessary for genuine Dalit political power; later called the Poona Pact a forced agreement

Key Distinction for Prelims: Communal Award = separate electorates (only Dalits vote for Dalit candidates; 71 seats). Poona Pact = reserved seats within joint electorates (all voters vote, but seats reserved for Dalits; 148 seats). This distinction between separate electorates and reserved seats is fundamental to understanding the Gandhi-Ambedkar debate.

CDM — Second Phase and End (1932–1934)

Feature Detail
Resumption After the failure of the Second RTC, Gandhi relaunched Civil Disobedience in January 1932
Government response Extremely harsh — organisations banned, property confiscated, press gagged; over 120,000 arrested during the entire CDM
Withdrawal CDM officially suspended in May 1933 and formally withdrawn in May 1934

Timeline of Key Events (1927–1935)

Date Event
November 1927 Simon Commission appointed — all-white, no Indian members
30 October 1928 Lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai in Lahore during anti-Simon protests
17 November 1928 Lala Lajpat Rai dies from injuries sustained in the lathi charge
August 1928 Nehru Report submitted — demands Dominion Status, joint electorates, 19 fundamental rights
March 1929 Jinnah's Fourteen Points — rejects the Nehru Report
19 December 1929 Lahore Congress passes Purna Swaraj resolution
31 December 1929 Nehru hoists the tricolour on the banks of River Ravi at midnight
26 January 1930 First Independence Day (Purna Swaraj Day) observed across India
12 March 1930 Dandi March begins — 78 volunteers leave Sabarmati Ashram
6 April 1930 Gandhi breaks the salt law at Dandi
4 May 1930 Gandhi arrested
21 May 1930 Dharasana Salt Works raid — Webb Miller's report shocks the world
Nov 1930 – Jan 1931 First RTC — Congress boycotts; princely states offer to join federation
5 March 1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed — CDM suspended
Sep – Dec 1931 Second RTC — Gandhi as sole Congress representative; communal deadlock
16 August 1932 Communal Award — separate electorates for Depressed Classes
20 September 1932 Gandhi begins fast unto death in Yeravada Jail
24 September 1932 Poona Pact signed — reserved seats replace separate electorates
Nov – Dec 1932 Third RTC — only 46 delegates; Congress absent
March 1933 White Paper based on RTC recommendations published
May 1934 CDM formally withdrawn
August 1935 Government of India Act, 1935 enacted

Comparison of the Three Round Table Conferences

Feature First RTC (1930–31) Second RTC (1931) Third RTC (1932)
Delegates 89 ~112 46
Congress participation Boycotted (CDM ongoing) Gandhi attended as sole representative Absent (leaders in jail)
Key issue Federal structure for India Communal representation Finalising constitutional proposals
Princely states Offered to join federation Continued support for federation Discussions on federation continued
Outcome Federation concept accepted Communal deadlock; no agreement White Paper (1933) leading to Government of India Act, 1935
British Labour Party Participated Participated Boycotted

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Focus Areas

  • Simon Commission: 1927, 7 members, all-white (included Clement Attlee), "Simon Go Back"; Lajpat Rai died 17 Nov 1928
  • Nehru Report: 1928, Motilal Nehru, Dominion Status, 19 fundamental rights, joint electorates; Jinnah's Fourteen Points 1929
  • Lahore Congress: December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru president, Purna Swaraj; midnight flag on River Ravi; 26 January 1930
  • Dandi March: 12 March – 6 April 1930; 387 km (240 miles); 78 volunteers; salt law broken
  • Dharasana: 21 May 1930; Sarojini Naidu; Webb Miller's United Press account
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact: 5 March 1931; CDM suspended; Churchill's "seditious fakir" remark; Congress attended 2nd RTC
  • RTCs: First (1930–31, 89 delegates, Congress boycott), Second (1931, Gandhi sole Congress rep), Third (1932, 46 delegates)
  • Communal Award: 16 August 1932, Ramsay MacDonald, separate electorates for Dalits (71 seats)
  • Poona Pact: 24 September 1932; Gandhi-Ambedkar; reserved seats (not separate electorates); 71 to 148 seats; 18% in Central Legislature

Mains Focus Areas

  • Compare NCM (1920) and CDM (1930) — evolution of strategy, scale, and impact
  • Was the Dandi March the most effective weapon in Gandhi's arsenal? Why salt?
  • Gandhi-Ambedkar debate on separate electorates vs reserved seats — assess both positions
  • Did the Round Table Conferences achieve anything for India?
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact: tactical retreat or strategic failure?

Vocabulary

Civil Disobedience

  • Pronunciation: /ˈsɪvəl ˌdɪsəˈbiːdiəns/
  • Definition: The deliberate, non-violent refusal to obey unjust laws or governmental demands as a collective means of forcing political concessions, most notably employed by Gandhi to challenge British colonial authority in India.
  • Origin: Coined by Henry David Thoreau as the title of his 1866 essay (originally published in 1849 as "Resistance to Civil Government"); from Latin cīvīlis ("relating to a citizen") + Old French desobedience ("refusal to obey").

Salt March

  • Pronunciation: /sɒlt mɑːtʃ/
  • Definition: A 387-kilometre march led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi (12 March to 6 April 1930), during which Gandhi and his followers broke the British salt law by making salt from seawater, launching the mass Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • Origin: English compound; also known as the Dandi March, Dandi Satyagraha, or Salt Satyagraha; named after the commodity (salt) whose taxation symbolised British oppression of the poorest Indians.

Purna Swaraj

  • Pronunciation: /ˈpʊərnɑː swəˈrɑːdʒ/
  • Definition: The declaration of complete independence from British rule, adopted as the goal of the Indian National Congress at its Lahore session on 19 December 1929, replacing the earlier demand for Dominion Status.
  • Origin: From Sanskrit pūrṇa ("complete, full") + svarāja ("self-rule, sovereignty," from sva, "one's own" + rāja, "rule"); 26 January 1930 was celebrated as the first Purna Swaraj Day, and the date was later chosen for Republic Day.

Key Terms

Dandi March

  • Pronunciation: /ˈdɑːndi mɑːtʃ/
  • Definition: The 24-day, 387-kilometre march led by Gandhi with 78 volunteers from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast (12 March - 6 April 1930), where he broke the British salt monopoly by picking up natural salt, sparking the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement that resulted in over 60,000 arrests.
  • Context: Gandhi chose salt because the salt tax affected every Indian regardless of caste, class, or religion, making it the perfect unifying symbol; the march received worldwide media coverage and inspired similar civil disobedience across India.
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India). Prelims: tested on dates (12 March – 6 April 1930), distance (387 km), number of volunteers (78), starting point (Sabarmati Ashram), and endpoint (Dandi, Navsari). Mains: asked to assess the strategic significance of choosing salt as a symbol, the march's role in internationalising the Indian freedom struggle, and comparison with other Gandhian movements. Focus on how Gandhi's genius lay in transforming an economic grievance into a moral confrontation that the British could not easily suppress.

Round Table Conference

  • Pronunciation: /raʊnd ˈteɪbəl ˈkɒnfərəns/
  • Definition: A series of three conferences (1930-1932) held in London between British officials and Indian political representatives to discuss constitutional reforms for India, which ultimately led to the Government of India Act, 1935; notable for the communal deadlock at the Second RTC and the absence of Congress at the First and Third.
  • Context: First RTC (1930–31): Congress absent; Second RTC (1931): Gandhi attended as sole Congress representative, communal deadlock led to the Communal Award; Third RTC (1932): boycotted by Congress and most Indian parties; the conferences' failure led directly to the Government of India Act, 1935.
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India) & GS2 (Polity). Prelims: tested on the three RTCs — years, Congress participation, key outcomes (Communal Award, Poona Pact), and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact that preceded Gandhi's participation in the Second RTC. Mains: asked to assess the RTCs' failure in resolving the communal question and their contribution to the Government of India Act 1935. Focus on the Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Ambedkar as a critical turning point in the debate over minority representation.

Sources: Bipan Chandra — India's Struggle for Independence, NCERT — Themes in Indian History Part III, Judith Brown — Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, B.R. Ambedkar — Annihilation of Caste