Overview

Mahatma Gandhi's return to India in 1915 transformed the freedom struggle from an elite movement to a mass revolution. Through a series of escalating Satyagrahas — from local agrarian issues to nationwide non-cooperation — Gandhi pioneered a new method of resistance that combined non-violence, mass participation, and moral authority. His experiments in South Africa (1893--1915) laid the foundation for every technique he would later deploy in India.

Gandhi in South Africa (1893--1915)

Gandhi arrived in South Africa in 1893, aged 23, to work as a lawyer for an Indian merchant firm in Natal. His transformative experience came on 7 June 1893 at Pietermaritzburg railway station, where he was thrown off a first-class train compartment despite holding a valid ticket — simply because he was Indian. This incident became his moment of awakening against racial injustice.

Key Institutions and Experiments

Institution / Event Year Significance
Natal Indian Congress 1894 First permanent political organisation for Indians in South Africa; unified a diverse community divided by language, religion, and caste into a single political force
Indian Opinion (newspaper) 1903 Weekly newspaper to voice Indian grievances; became a tool for mobilising the community
Phoenix Settlement 1904 Founded near Durban; a communal farm inspired by Ruskin's Unto This Last; practised simple living, manual labour, and self-sufficiency
Satyagraha coined 1906 First used the term during the campaign against the Transvaal Asiatic Registration Act (Black Act); organised mass resistance through non-violent civil disobedience
Tolstoy Farm 1910 Founded near Johannesburg on 1,100 acres of land donated by Herman Kallenbach; served as headquarters of the Satyagraha campaign in Transvaal; housed 85 residents

Intellectual Influences

Gandhi acknowledged three key modern influences that shaped his philosophy:

  • Leo Tolstoy — The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894): Gandhi wrote that this book "overwhelmed" him and converted him from a "votary of violence" to a firm believer in non-violence. He corresponded directly with Tolstoy in 1909--1910, until Tolstoy's death.
  • John Ruskin — Unto This Last (1860): Gandhi was so moved by this work that he translated it into Gujarati as Sarvodaya ("welfare of all"). It inspired the Phoenix Settlement.
  • Henry David Thoreau — Civil Disobedience (1849): Reinforced Gandhi's commitment to non-violent resistance against unjust laws during his South Africa years.

Return to India (1915) and Early Satyagrahas

Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after 21 years in South Africa. His political mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, advised him to spend his first year with "his ears open and his mouth shut" — to travel across India and understand its conditions before entering politics. Gokhale passed away on 19 February 1915, just days after their last meeting.

Gandhi first established the Satyagraha Ashram at Kochrab, Ahmedabad on 25 May 1915. In June 1917, the ashram was relocated to the banks of the Sabarmati River — thereafter known as the Sabarmati Ashram — which became his base for the next 13 years.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

The first Satyagraha in India. A peasant named Rajkumar Shukla travelled to the 1916 Lucknow Congress session to persuade Gandhi to visit Champaran, Bihar. Shukla's persistence convinced Gandhi to investigate the plight of indigo farmers.

Feature Detail
Issue The exploitative Tinkathia system — European planters forced peasants to cultivate indigo on 3/20th (three kathas per bigha) of their landholding, even after synthetic dyes made indigo unprofitable
Gandhi's arrival Reached Motihari on 15 April 1917; was ordered to leave by the district magistrate but refused — his first act of civil disobedience in India
Key associates Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, Mazhar ul-Haq, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh
Government response Appointed an enquiry committee with Gandhi as a member
Outcome The Champaran Agrarian Act (1918) abolished the Tinkathia system and provided relief to farmers

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (February--March 1918)

Feature Detail
Issue Textile mill owners in Ahmedabad withdrew plague bonuses after the epidemic subsided; workers demanded a 50% wage increase to cope with wartime inflation
Gandhi's role Mediated between mill workers and mill owner Ambalal Sarabhai; organised workers and advised them to strike but remain non-violent
First hunger strike When workers' morale weakened, Gandhi undertook a fast on 15 March 1918 — the first of his 17 fasts — to strengthen their resolve
Settlement On the third day of the fast, both sides agreed to refer the dispute to an arbitrator; workers were eventually granted a 35% wage increase
Significance First use of the hunger strike as a political weapon in India

Kheda Satyagraha (March 1918)

Feature Detail
Issue Severe drought and crop failure in Kheda district, Gujarat (1917--18); peasants could not pay land revenue; the British government refused to suspend revenue collection despite crops failing by more than 75%
The pledge At a meeting in Nadiad on 22 March 1918, Gandhi urged peasants to take a sacred pledge not to pay the assessment for the year
Key leader Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as a mass leader here — he travelled through villages, organised meetings, motivated farmers, and maintained discipline
Other associates Indulal Yagnik, Shankarlal Banker, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya
Outcome Government agreed to suspend revenue collection from those unable to pay and reduce the rate increase

Key Point: These three early Satyagrahas established Gandhi's credentials. Champaran (agrarian issue in Bihar), Ahmedabad (industrial workers in Gujarat), and Kheda (peasant revenue issue in Gujarat) demonstrated he could lead across different classes and regions.

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh (1919)

The Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

The Rowlatt Committee, headed by Justice Sidney Rowlatt, was appointed in December 1917 to examine revolutionary conspiracies in India and recommend legislation. Its report (April 1918) recommended sweeping emergency powers. On 18 March 1919, the Imperial Legislative Council passed the bill into law despite unanimous opposition from all Indian members.

Feature Detail
Official name Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919
Key provisions Arrest, search, and detention without warrant; trial by special tribunals without jury and without right to appeal; no legal representation for the accused; suspension of habeas corpus; indefinite detention without trial
Press control Stricter censorship of the press; prohibition on political, educational, and religious activities for those convicted
Indian reaction Gandhi called it a "Black Act" and launched a nationwide Rowlatt Satyagraha (6 April 1919 — observed as a hartal/shutdown across India)
Council opposition All Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council — including Jinnah — voted against it and resigned in protest

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

Detail Fact
Date 13 April 1919 (also the day of Baisakhi — a major Sikh and Punjabi harvest festival)
Location Jallianwala Bagh, a walled public garden in Amritsar, Punjab
Commander Brigadier-General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer
What happened Without warning, Dyer ordered his 50 troops to fire on an unarmed crowd gathered to peacefully protest the arrest of leaders Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew
Duration of firing Approximately 10 minutes
Rounds fired 1,650 rounds
Official casualties At least 379 dead, over 1,200 wounded (official Hunter Commission figures); Indian estimates put deaths at over 1,000
Dyer's justification He said he wanted to produce a "moral effect" on the whole of Punjab
Inquiry Hunter Commission (1919–1920) — censured Dyer; he was forced to resign; but the House of Lords praised him and a public fund raised £26,000 for him — infuriating Indians
Impact Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood; Gandhi returned his Kaiser-i-Hind medal; deepened anti-British sentiment irreversibly
Martial law in Punjab General Dyer imposed crawling orders (Indians forced to crawl on a street where a British woman was attacked), public floggings, and collective punishments

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)

Feature Detail
Issue After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was dismembered; the Turkish Caliph (Khalifa) — regarded by many Muslims as the spiritual head of Islam — was stripped of temporal authority by the Treaty of Sèvres (1920)
Indian Muslim response The Ali Brothers — Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali — led the Khilafat Movement demanding restoration of the Caliph's authority
Gandhi's support Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims in a common cause against the British; he linked the Khilafat Movement with the Non-Cooperation Movement
Khilafat Committee Formed 1919; president: Maulana Mahmud ul-Haq; key leaders: Ali Brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan
End The movement collapsed after Mustafa Kemal Atatürk abolished the Caliphate in Turkey itself (March 1924) — rendering the demand meaningless

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

Launch and Rationale

Feature Detail
Launched 1 August 1920 (Tilak's death day); formally ratified at the Nagpur Congress session (December 1920)
Triple cause (1) Jallianwala Bagh and Punjab wrongs; (2) Khilafat issue; (3) Demand for Swaraj (self-governance)
Gandhi's strategy Withdraw all cooperation from the British — if Indians refused to participate in colonial institutions, British rule would become impossible
Congress-Khilafat alliance Gandhi united the Congress and the Khilafat Committee — the first mass alliance between Hindus and Muslims in the freedom movement

Methods

Method Detail
Boycott of government institutions Surrender of titles and honorary positions; boycott of courts, schools, colleges, legislative councils
Boycott of foreign goods Public bonfires of foreign cloth; promotion of Khadi (hand-spun cloth) and the spinning wheel (charkha)
Constructive programme Establishment of national schools and colleges; promotion of communal harmony; Hindu-Muslim unity; removal of untouchability; uplift of women
Non-payment of taxes Planned as the final stage (never reached due to withdrawal)

Response and Impact

Feature Detail
Mass participation Lawyers like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Rajendra Prasad gave up lucrative practices; students left government schools; thousands courted arrest
Tilak Swaraj Fund Over Rs 1 crore collected for the movement
Impact on British Legitimacy crisis — legislative councils boycotted; tax collection disrupted in several areas
Government response Thousands arrested; Congress declared unlawful in several provinces; repressive measures

Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal

Feature Detail
Date 4 February 1922 (some sources say 5 February)
Location Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh
What happened A procession of ~3,000 NCM volunteers was fired upon by police; the enraged mob retaliated by setting fire to the police station, killing 22 police officers
Gandhi's reaction Horrified by the violence, Gandhi unilaterally called off the entire Non-Cooperation Movement on 12 February 1922 — at its peak
Criticism Leaders like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Lala Lajpat Rai were devastated; they argued the movement should have continued despite one isolated incident
Gandhi's arrest Arrested on 10 March 1922; tried for sedition; sentenced to 6 years; released in 1924 on health grounds

Mains Favourite: "Was Gandhi right to call off NCM after Chauri Chaura?" is one of the most repeated questions. A strong answer: (1) Gandhi's commitment to non-violence was non-negotiable — violence would destroy the moral authority of the movement; (2) Critics argued the movement was at its peak and withdrawal demoralised millions; (3) The Swaraj Party (1923) was a direct consequence — leaders redirected energy into councils. Present both sides with evidence.

Swaraj Party (1923)

Feature Detail
Founded 1 January 1923 by C.R. Das (president) and Motilal Nehru (secretary)
Aim Enter the reformed legislative councils to obstruct the colonial government from within ("Council Entry" or "Responsive Cooperation")
Contrast with Gandhi Gandhi opposed council entry; preferred constructive work (spinning, education, Hindu-Muslim unity)
Achievement Won significant seats in Bengal and Central Provinces; obstructed colonial legislation effectively; demonstrated the limitations of dyarchy
Decline C.R. Das died in 1925; the party weakened and was eventually reabsorbed into Congress

Summary Tables

Timeline of Gandhi's Movements (1917--1922)

Year Movement / Event Location Outcome
1917 Champaran Satyagraha Champaran, Bihar Tinkathia system abolished via Champaran Agrarian Act (1918)
1918 (Feb--Mar) Ahmedabad Mill Strike Ahmedabad, Gujarat 35% wage increase; first hunger strike in India
1918 (Mar) Kheda Satyagraha Kheda, Gujarat Revenue collection suspended for those unable to pay
1919 (Apr 6) Rowlatt Satyagraha Nationwide Mass hartal; marked Gandhi's first nationwide campaign
1919 (Apr 13) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Amritsar, Punjab 379 killed (official); Hunter Commission censured Dyer
1920--22 Non-Cooperation Movement Nationwide Largest mass movement until then; withdrawn after Chauri Chaura
1919--24 Khilafat Movement Nationwide Hindu-Muslim unity; collapsed after Caliphate abolished (1924)

Key Satyagrahas at a Glance

Satyagraha Date Issue Key Leader(s) beside Gandhi Method Result
Champaran Apr 1917 Tinkathia (forced indigo cultivation) Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani Investigation, civil disobedience Champaran Agrarian Act (1918)
Ahmedabad Mill Strike Feb--Mar 1918 Withdrawal of plague bonus; wartime inflation Anasuya Sarabhai Strike + hunger fast 35% wage increase via arbitration
Kheda Mar 1918 Crop failure; inability to pay revenue Vallabhbhai Patel No-tax pledge (Nadiad, 22 Mar 1918) Revenue suspended for the poor
Rowlatt Satyagraha Apr 1919 Rowlatt Act — detention without trial Nationwide participation Hartal on 6 April 1919 Act not repealed but morally delegitimised
Non-Cooperation 1920--22 Punjab wrongs, Khilafat, Swaraj C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Ali Brothers Boycott of institutions, Khadi, constructive programme Withdrawn 12 Feb 1922 after Chauri Chaura

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Focus Areas

  • Gandhi in South Africa: Natal Indian Congress (1894); Phoenix Settlement (1904); Tolstoy Farm (1910); Pietermaritzburg incident (1893)
  • Champaran (1917): first Satyagraha in India; Tinkathia system; Rajkumar Shukla; Bihar
  • Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): first hunger strike in India; plague bonus dispute; 35% wage increase
  • Kheda (1918): no-tax campaign; Gujarat; Sardar Patel's emergence; Nadiad pledge
  • Rowlatt Act (1919): Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act; detention without trial; "Black Act"
  • Jallianwala Bagh: 13 April 1919; General Dyer; 1,650 rounds; ~379 killed (official); Hunter Commission
  • Tagore renounced knighthood; Gandhi returned Kaiser-i-Hind medal
  • NCM launched: 1 August 1920; ratified Nagpur December 1920
  • Chauri Chaura: 5 February 1922; 22 policemen killed; NCM withdrawn 12 February 1922
  • Swaraj Party: 1923; C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru; council entry
  • Khilafat: Ali Brothers; ended when Ataturk abolished Caliphate (1924)
  • Sabarmati Ashram: Kochrab (1915) then moved to Sabarmati riverbank (1917)

Mains Focus Areas

  • How did Gandhi's South Africa experience shape his political methods in India?
  • How did Gandhi transform the freedom movement from an elite to a mass movement?
  • Was NCM withdrawal after Chauri Chaura justified?
  • Evaluate the Congress-Khilafat alliance — genuine unity or tactical convenience?
  • Compare Gandhi's methods with Tilak's — evolution of nationalist strategy
  • Role of Jallianwala Bagh in radicalising Indian opinion
  • Why did the Khilafat Movement fail?
  • Assess the significance of Champaran as the "rehearsal" for the larger national movements

Vocabulary

Satyagraha

  • Pronunciation: /ˌsʌt.jɑːˈɡrʌ.hə/
  • Definition: A philosophy and practice of non-violent civil resistance developed by Mahatma Gandhi, in which protesters actively but peacefully refuse to comply with unjust laws while accepting the legal consequences.
  • Origin: From Sanskrit, combining satya (सत्य, "truth," from the root sat-, "existing, true") and āgraha (आग्रह, "firm grasping, insistence," from gṛh-, "to seize"); coined by Gandhi in 1906 during his South Africa campaign.

Ahimsa

  • Pronunciation: /ʌˈhɪm.sɑː/
  • Definition: The ancient Indian ethical principle of non-violence and non-injury toward all living beings, central to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and adopted by Gandhi as the moral foundation of the independence movement.
  • Origin: From Sanskrit ahiṃsā (अहिंसा), combining the privative prefix a- ("not, without") and hiṃsā ("injury, harm," from the root hiṃs-, "to strike"); literally "non-harming."

Swaraj

  • Pronunciation: /swəˈrɑːdʒ/
  • Definition: Self-rule or self-governance; in the Indian independence movement, it referred both to political independence from British colonial rule and to Gandhi's broader vision of community-based self-governance and individual self-discipline.
  • Origin: From Sanskrit svarāj (स्वराज्), combining sva ("own, self") and rāj ("rule, sovereignty"); entered English political usage around 1907–1908.

Key Terms

Non-Cooperation Movement

  • Pronunciation: /nɒn kəʊˌɒp.əˈreɪ.ʃən ˈmuːv.mənt/
  • Definition: The first nationwide mass campaign (1920–1922) led by Gandhi under the Indian National Congress, in which Indians systematically withdrew cooperation from British institutions — boycotting courts, schools, legislatures, foreign goods, and titles — to make colonial rule unworkable; it was called off on 12 February 1922 after the Chauri Chaura violence.
  • Context: Merged the Khilafat issue (Muslim grievance over the dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate) with the national movement; marked Gandhi's transformation of the Congress from an elite body into a mass organisation; withdrawal after Chauri Chaura (5 February 1922) remains debated.
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India). Prelims: tested on dates (1920–1922), the Khilafat connection, Chauri Chaura incident (5 February 1922), and forms of boycott (courts, schools, titles, foreign goods). Mains: a perennial topic — asked to assess the significance of the NCM in transforming the Congress into a mass movement, evaluate Gandhi's decision to withdraw after Chauri Chaura, and compare with the Civil Disobedience Movement. Focus on the Hindu-Muslim unity achieved and why it broke down afterward.

Civil Disobedience Movement

  • Pronunciation: /ˌsɪv.əl ˌdɪs.əˈbiː.di.əns ˈmuːv.mənt/
  • Definition: The mass campaign launched by Gandhi on 12 March 1930 with the Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (387 km), in which Indians deliberately broke unjust British laws — beginning with the salt tax — through non-violent protest, resulting in approximately 60,000 arrests and drawing worldwide attention to the independence cause.
  • Context: Inspired by Henry David Thoreau's 1849 essay; the movement went through two phases — Phase I (1930–31, ending with Gandhi-Irwin Pact) and Phase II (1932–34, after the failure of the Second Round Table Conference); women's participation was significantly greater than in the NCM.
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India). Prelims: tested on the Salt March (dates, distance, participants), Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931), and the Communal Award/Poona Pact (1932). Mains: frequently asked — compare NCM and CDM in terms of methods, social base, and outcomes; assess women's role in the CDM. Focus on how the movement internationalised India's freedom struggle and the strategic genius of choosing salt as the symbol of resistance.

Sources: M.K. Gandhi — Autobiography (The Story of My Experiments with Truth), Bipan Chandra — India's Struggle for Independence, NCERT — Themes in Indian History Part III, Judith Brown — Gandhi's Rise to Power