Overview

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur in 1526 and became one of the largest and most powerful empires in Indian history. This chapter covers the formative period — from Babur's conquest through Akbar's consolidation — during which the empire's administrative foundations were laid.

The early Mughal period saw three distinct phases: (1) Babur's military conquest and the introduction of gunpowder warfare (1526–1530), (2) Humayun's loss of the empire and the Sher Shah Suri interregnum (1540–1555), which produced some of medieval India's finest administrative innovations, and (3) Akbar's consolidation (1556–1605), which transformed a military conquest into a stable, multi-ethnic empire through innovative administrative, religious, and revenue reforms.

Babur (1526–1530)

Feature Detail
Full name Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur
Origin Descended from Timur (paternal) and Genghis Khan (maternal, through Chagatai Khan); born 14 February 1483
Early struggles Inherited the small kingdom of Fergana (1494) at age 12; captured Samarkand (1497) but lost both Fergana and Samarkand to Uzbek chief Muhammad Shaybani Khan by 1501
Kabul Captured Kabul in October 1504, crossing the Hindu Kush; this gave him a stable base to rebuild his fortunes
Invasion context Invited by Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodi) to challenge the Delhi Sultanate
Memoir Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi) — autobiography written in Chagatai Turkish; one of the finest memoirs in world literature; later translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan; covers his life from Fergana to India

Babur's Major Battles in India

Battle Date Against Significance
First Battle of Panipat 21 April 1526 Ibrahim Lodi (last Delhi Sultan) Founded the Mughal Empire; introduced gunpowder warfare (matchlock muskets + cannons) to India; artillery commanded by Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa Rumi; used Tulughma (flanking) tactics and araba (cart barricade)
Battle of Khanwa 16 March 1527 Rana Sanga (Mewar Rajput confederacy of 120+ chieftains) Decisive Mughal victory; Babur declared it a jihad and took the title Ghazi; ended Rajput hopes of filling the power vacuum
Battle of Chanderi 1528 Medini Rai (Rajput chief) Consolidated Mughal control over central India
Battle of Ghaghra 1529 Afghan confederacy (Bihar-Bengal) Defeated combined Afghan forces; secured the eastern frontier

Key Point: At Panipat, Babur had only ~12,000 men against Ibrahim Lodi's 50,000–70,000 with ~1,000 war elephants. Babur's advantage was gunpowder technology and superior tactics — he positioned carts tied together (araba) as a defensive barrier, with Ustad Ali Quli's cannons and matchlockmen behind them, while cavalry flanked the enemy using the Tulughma formation. The cannon fire panicked Lodi's war elephants, turning them against their own army.

Assessment: Babur died on 26 December 1530 at Agra after ruling India for only four years. He was primarily a military conqueror rather than an administrator — he had little time to consolidate. His lasting legacy lies in the Baburnama (a literary masterpiece providing invaluable insights into 16th-century Central and South Asia) and the dynasty he founded. He was initially buried in Agra, but his remains were later moved to Kabul as per his wish.

Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)

Feature Detail
Reign Two phases — first reign (1530–1540) ended in defeat; restored 1555; died 1556
Challenge Faced threats from all sides — Afghan Sher Khan (Bihar), Bahadur Shah (Gujarat), and his own brothers (Kamran, Askari, Hindal) who refused to cooperate
Division of empire Babur had divided his territories among his sons — Kamran (Kabul, Kandahar, Punjab), Askari and Hindal also received shares; this fragmented Mughal strength from the outset
Battle of Chausa 26 June 1539 — defeated by Sher Khan (later Sher Shah Suri); Humayun narrowly escaped by swimming across the Ganges with the help of a water-carrier (Nizam, whom he rewarded by making him "emperor for a day")
Battle of Kannauj (Bilgram) 17 May 1540 — decisive defeat by Sher Shah; Humayun lost the empire entirely
Exile Spent 15 years (1540–1555) in exile — wandered through Sindh, Rajputana, and eventually took refuge in Safavid Persia under Shah Tahmasp
Persian refuge Received military help from Shah Tahmasp of Safavid Persia in exchange for converting to Shia Islam (temporary) and ceding Kandahar
Reconquest Recaptured Delhi and Agra in July 1555 after Sher Shah's successors (Islam Shah, then weak claimants) weakened the Sur dynasty
Death Fell on 24 January 1556 descending the stairs of the Sher Mandal (his library in Purana Qila, Delhi); caught his foot in his robe while kneeling for the azaan; struck his temple and died three days later on 27 January 1556

Prelims Fact: Humayun fell from the Sher Mandal (his library in Purana Qila, Delhi) on 24 January 1556 and died three days later — this unusual death is a frequently tested fact. His tomb in Delhi (built by his widow Haji Begum, completed 1572, architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas) is the first great example of Mughal garden tomb architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993).

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) — The Afghan Interlude

Though he ruled for only five years, Sher Shah Suri's administrative reforms were among the most impactful in Indian history and directly influenced Mughal governance under Akbar. Born Farid Khan in Sasaram (Bihar), he earned the title "Sher Khan" after reportedly killing a tiger. He died during the siege of Kalinjar fort (1545) when a gunpowder explosion injured him fatally.

Reform Detail
Grand Trunk Road Rebuilt and extended the ancient route (Uttarapatha) from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar (~2,500 miles); lined with trees and sarais (rest houses)
Silver Rupiya Standardised silver coin weighing 178 grains (~11.53 grams); became the basis for the modern Indian rupee
Revenue system Systematic land measurement using the Sikandari Gaj (39-inch rod, inherited from Sikandar Lodi); land measured in units of Bigha and Biswa; average yield rate (Rai) fixed for Polaj (annually cultivated) and Parauti (temporarily fallow) lands based on good, middle, and low yields; introduced Patta (deed showing revenue demand) and Qabuliyat (agreement of acceptance by cultivator); revenue collected in cash
Sarais Built a network of 1,700 sarais along major roads — serving as rest houses, post stations, and intelligence centres; each sarai had a well, a mosque, and separate quarters for Hindus and Muslims
Postal system (Dak Chowki) Established dak chowkis (post houses) in sarais with 3,400 postal messengers; these also served as centres of local intelligence gathering, giving the emperor real-time information from across the empire
Coinage Introduced the Rupiya (silver, 178 grains / ~11.53 g), Dam (copper, ~323 grains / ~20.9 g), and Gold Mohur (~169 grains / ~10.95 g) — a standardised tri-metallic currency system
Administrative divisions Empire divided into Sarkars (districts) → Parganas → villages; each pargana had a Shiqdar (military/law and order), Amin (revenue assessment), and Qanungo (record-keeper); a Karkun proficient in Hindi and another in Persian maintained bilingual records
Justice Known for strict and efficient justice; maintained law and order across the empire
Military Introduced branding of horses (dagh) to prevent fraud in musters; maintained a large standing army with personal loyalty to the sultan

Common Mistake: The Grand Trunk Road did NOT originate with Sher Shah. The ancient route (Uttarapatha) existed since the Mauryan period — Chandragupta Maurya's Rajamarga from Pataliputra to Taxila. Sher Shah rebuilt, extended, and systematised it with trees, sarais, and milestones, transforming it into an efficient highway.

Prelims Fact: Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram (Bihar) stands in the middle of an artificial lake and is considered a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture. He died on 22 May 1545 during the siege of Kalinjar fort when a gunpowder explosion fatally injured him.

Akbar (1556–1605)

Rise to Power

Event Detail
Accession Became emperor at age 13 after Humayun's sudden death (1556)
Regent Bairam Khan — served as regent and guardian; led the crucial Second Battle of Panipat
Second Battle of Panipat 5 November 1556 — Mughal forces under Bairam Khan defeated Hemu (Hindu general who had captured Delhi and Agra and crowned himself Raja Vikramaditya); Hemu was struck by an arrow in the eye and captured unconscious
Independence Dismissed Bairam Khan in 1560 (sent on Hajj pilgrimage; Bairam was murdered en route by Afghans); period of Atka Khail (foster-mother Maham Anga's family) influence followed briefly

Conquests and Expansion

Campaign Year Detail
Malwa 1561 Defeated Baz Bahadur (last sultan of Malwa); Adham Khan led the campaign
Rajput alliance (Amber) 1562 Raja Bihari Mal of Amber married his daughter to Akbar (6 February 1562); first major Rajput–Mughal marriage alliance
Gujarat 1572–1573 Captured Ahmedabad, Surat, and other key ports; Gujarat's maritime trade revenue exceeded 5 million rupees annually; built Buland Darwaza to commemorate the victory
Bengal and Bihar 1574–1576 Defeated Daud Khan (Afghan ruler); annexed both provinces under Munim Khan
Haldighati 18 June 1576 Man Singh led Mughal forces against Rana Pratap of Mewar; Rana Pratap defeated but continued guerrilla resistance until death (1597)
Kashmir 1586 Annexed peacefully under Bhagwan Das and Qasim Khan
Sindh 1591 Annexed after brief resistance
Deccan 1591–1601 Diplomatic missions (1591) followed by military campaigns; Berar ceded (1596); Chand Bibi resisted at Ahmadnagar but was killed by a rival faction (1600); Khandesh and fort of Asirgarh annexed (1601)

Administrative Reforms

Mansabdari System

Feature Detail
What Hierarchical ranking system for all imperial officials, military commanders, and nobles
Mansab "Rank" or "position" — every official was assigned a mansab determining their status, salary, and military obligation
Dual rank Zat (personal rank — determined salary and status) and Sawar (cavalry rank — number of horsemen the mansabdar was obligated to maintain)
Categories Mansabdars were classified based on the ratio of Sawar to Zat: 1st category (Sawar = Zat), 2nd category (Sawar = half of Zat or more), 3rd category (Sawar < half of Zat)
Non-hereditary Ranks were personal, not inherited — the emperor could grant, promote, demote, or withdraw mansabs at will
Innovation Incorporated all communities — Rajputs, Indian Muslims, Central Asians, Persians — into a unified administrative hierarchy, creating a loyal, multi-ethnic ruling class
Highest ranks Ranks ranged from 10 to 5,000 initially (later expanded to 7,000 under Akbar); ranks above 5,000 were reserved for princes

Todar Mal's Revenue Reforms — Dahsala / Zabti System

Feature Detail
Architect Raja Todar Mal — appointed Diwan-i-Ashraf (finance minister)
System Dahsala ("ten-year") system — also called Zabti (measurement) system
Method Revenue fixed on each crop based on average yields and prices over 10 years (1570–1580); land measured using the standardised jarib (measuring rope reinforced with iron rings)
Formally introduced Implemented 1580–82; Twelve Regulations formally promulgated 3 March 1582
Payment Revenue collected in cash (commutation from grain payments); one-third of average produce as tax
Classification Land classified into four categories: Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (fallow for 1–2 years), Chachar (fallow 3–4 years), Banjar (fallow 5+ years)
Limitation Applied mainly in the directly administered provinces (Punjab, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, etc.); other regions used different systems (Nasaq in some areas)
Significance Created a predictable, rational revenue system that reduced arbitrary taxation and provided the Mughal state with a stable fiscal base

Provincial Administration

Level Name Detail
Province Subah Largest unit; initially 12 subahs (1580), expanded to 15 by end of Akbar's reign; headed by a Subedar (governor)
District Sarkar Empire divided into 105 sarkars (by 1594); headed by Faujdar (military) and Amalguzar (revenue)
Sub-district Pargana Approximately 2,037 parganas; headed by Shiqdar (law and order), Amin (revenue assessment), Qanungo (records), and Patwari (village accounts)
Village Mauza Lowest unit; headman (Muqaddam) and accountant (Patwari) handled local administration

Religious Policies

Policy Detail
Abolition of pilgrim tax Abolished in 1563 — removed tax on Hindu pilgrimages
Abolition of Jizya Abolished in 1564 — removed the poll tax on non-Muslims; a landmark decision signalling equal treatment of all subjects
Ibadat Khana "House of Worship" at Fatehpur Sikri — established in 1575 for theological discussions; initially with Muslim scholars only, later (1578) opened to Hindus, Jains, Christians, Zoroastrians
Mahzar (Infallibility Decree) 1579 — signed by senior ulema; declared Akbar the supreme arbiter in religious disputes; allowed him to interpret Islamic law independently of orthodox ulema
Din-i-Ilahi 1582 — a syncretic spiritual order (NOT a religion) combining elements of Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity; had no scriptures, priesthood, or places of worship; only about 18 people joined, including Birbal (the only Hindu member); died out with Akbar
Sulh-i-Kul "Universal peace" — Akbar's overarching policy of tolerance and harmony among all religions; the guiding philosophy of his entire reign
Translation projects Established the Maktab Khana (House of Translation, 1574) at Fatehpur Sikri; had Sanskrit texts translated into Persian — Mahabharata as "Razmnama" (Book of War, 1584–86), Ramayana, and Rajatarangini; Hindu scholars explained the meaning, Naqib Khan drafted in Persian, and Faizi refined into elegant prose

Exam Tip: Din-i-Ilahi (1582) was NOT a new religion — it was a mystical order with no scriptures, priesthood, or places of worship. Only ~18 people joined, including Birbal. This is a crucial Prelims distinction. Also, the Ibadat Khana was opened to all faiths from 1578 onwards, not from the start (1575).

Rajput Policy

Feature Detail
Marriage alliances Married Rajput princesses — including Jodha Bai (Harka Bai) of Amber (debated naming); first alliance with Raja Bihari Mal of Amber (1562) — his daughter later gave birth to Emperor Jahangir
Policy terms Rajput chiefs retained ancestral territories if they: (1) acknowledged Akbar as emperor, (2) paid tribute, (3) supplied troops when required, and (4) concluded marriage alliances
High positions Rajput kings like Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagwan Das of Amber given high mansabs and military commands
Mewar resistance Rana Pratap of Mewar refused to submit; Battle of Haldighati (18 June 1576) — Man Singh led Mughal forces; Rana Pratap fought valiantly but was defeated; continued guerrilla resistance until his death (1597)
Result Majority of Rajput kingdoms became loyal allies, providing military strength and administrative talent; Rajputs constituted a significant portion of Mughal nobility

Akbar's Navratna (Nine Gems)

CAUTION: No contemporary source (Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh) mentions the term "Navratna." The tradition is likely folklore modelled on Vikramaditya's legendary court. Know the list for Prelims, but note this caveat in Mains:

Name Contribution
Abul Fazl Historian; authored Akbarnama (history of Akbar's reign) and Ain-i-Akbari (detailed administrative manual)
Faizi Brother of Abul Fazl; poet; translated Lilavati (mathematics text) into Persian
Tansen Legendary musician; one of the greatest vocalists in Indian history; credited with creating several ragas including Darbari Kanada and Miyan ki Todi
Birbal Known for wit and wisdom; only Hindu to join Din-i-Ilahi; killed in the Yusufzai expedition in the northwest (February 1586)
Raja Todar Mal Revenue reformer; architect of the Dahsala system
Raja Man Singh Military commander; led major campaigns including Haldighati
Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan Poet and military commander; translated Baburnama from Chagatai Turkish to Persian; composed Hindi dohas
Fakir Aziao-Din Sufi mystic and advisor — likely fictional (no contemporary historical evidence)
Mullah Do-Piyaza Advisor — likely fictional (no contemporary historical evidence)

Fatehpur Sikri

Feature Detail
Built 1571–1585 by Akbar
Location Near Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Reason Akbar built it in honour of Sufi saint Salim Chishti, who predicted the birth of Akbar's son (later Emperor Jahangir)
Key structures Buland Darwaza (Gate of Magnificence — built c. 1575 to commemorate the Gujarat victory of 1573), Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Ibadat Khana, Tomb of Salim Chishti
Architectural style Fusion of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian elements — red sandstone with marble inlay; considered a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture
Abandonment Abandoned c. 1585 — traditionally attributed to water scarcity, though strategic reasons (shift to Lahore to manage the northwestern frontier) may also have contributed
UNESCO WHS 1986

Comparison: Sher Shah's and Akbar's Administrations

Feature Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) Akbar (1556–1605)
Revenue measurement Sikandari Gaj (39 inches); Bigha/Biswa units; Rai based on three yield grades Jarib (rope with iron rings); Dahsala — 10-year average of yields and prices
Revenue document Patta (demand deed) + Qabuliyat (cultivator's acceptance) Continued Patta-Qabuliyat; added systematic land classification (Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar)
Currency Standardised Rupiya (silver, 178 grains), Dam (copper), Gold Mohur Continued and refined Sher Shah's coinage; added regional mints
Provincial structure Sarkar → Pargana → Village Subah → Sarkar → Pargana → Village (added the Subah layer)
Officials Shiqdar, Amin, Qanungo, Patwari at Pargana level Retained Sher Shah's local officials; added Subedar, Faujdar, Amalguzar at higher levels
Military system Personal army; branding of horses (dagh) Mansabdari — Zat + Sawar dual-rank system; non-hereditary; multi-ethnic
Communication Dak Chowkis in 1,700 sarais; 3,400 postal runners Expanded and maintained the postal network
Legacy Laid the administrative blueprint in just 5 years Built upon and systematised Sher Shah's framework into a lasting imperial structure

Mains Tip: When comparing Sher Shah and Akbar's administrations, emphasise that Akbar did not start from scratch — he inherited and refined Sher Shah's innovations, particularly in revenue collection, road infrastructure, and local administration. The Mansabdari system and provincial Subah structure were Akbar's original contributions.

UPSC Relevance

Prelims Focus Areas

  • Babur: lost Fergana and Samarkand to Uzbek Shaybani Khan; captured Kabul (1504)
  • First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526): Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi; gunpowder warfare, Ustad Ali Quli (artillery), Tulughma tactics
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur vs Rana Sanga; Babur took title Ghazi
  • Baburnama: written in Chagatai Turkish (not Persian); translated to Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
  • Humayun: defeated at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) by Sher Shah; exile in Safavid Persia; died falling from Sher Mandal library stairs (January 1556)
  • Sher Shah Suri: Grand Trunk Road (Sonargaon to Peshawar), silver Rupiya (178 grains), Dam (copper), Patta-Qabuliyat, 1,700 sarais, 3,400 postal messengers
  • Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Bairam Khan vs Hemu
  • Akbar's Rajput alliance: first major marriage with Amber princess (1562)
  • Mansabdari: Zat (personal) and Sawar (cavalry) — dual rank system; non-hereditary
  • Dahsala/Zabti system: 1580, Todar Mal, 10-year average; land classified as Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar
  • Provincial structure: Subah (12 initially, 15 by end) → Sarkar (105) → Pargana (~2,037) → Village
  • Din-i-Ilahi (1582): NOT a religion, ~18 members, Birbal only Hindu
  • Ibadat Khana: 1575 (Muslims only), 1578 (all faiths); Maktab Khana (1574) — translation bureau
  • Razmnama: Persian translation of Mahabharata (1584–86)
  • Fatehpur Sikri: built 1571, UNESCO WHS 1986, Buland Darwaza 1601
  • Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram; died at siege of Kalinjar (1545)

Mains Focus Areas

  • Akbar's religious policy: was Sulh-i-Kul genuine tolerance or political strategy?
  • Mansabdari system: how it ensured loyalty and prevented feudal fragmentation
  • Compare Sher Shah's revenue system with Todar Mal's Dahsala — continuity and innovation
  • Akbar's Rajput policy: integration vs co-optation
  • Mughal-Rajput alliance and its impact on Indian political unity
  • Battle of Haldighati: resistance vs pragmatism debate
  • Provincial administration: Subah-Sarkar-Pargana hierarchy and its effectiveness
  • Akbar's Deccan policy: diplomacy, military campaigns, and the role of Chand Bibi

Vocabulary

Mansabdari

  • Pronunciation: /ˌmænsəbˈdɑːri/
  • Definition: The hierarchical ranking and salary system introduced by Akbar in the Mughal Empire, whereby every civil and military official was assigned a mansab (rank) determining their status, pay, and military obligations.
  • Origin: From Arabic mansab ("rank, position, office") combined with Persian -dar ("holder, keeper") and the system suffix -i; thus "the system of rank-holders."

Jagirdari

  • Pronunciation: /ˌdʒɑːɡɪrˈdɑːri/
  • Definition: The Mughal system of land revenue assignment whereby officials (jagirdars) were granted the right to collect agricultural revenue from specified territories (jagirs) in lieu of cash salaries.
  • Origin: From Persian jagir ("holding land"), itself from jah ("place") + gir ("seizing, holding"), combined with -dar ("holder") and -i (system suffix).

Farman

  • Pronunciation: /fərˈmɑːn/
  • Definition: An irrevocable royal decree or mandate issued by a Mughal emperor, carrying the force of law and used for administrative orders, grants, and diplomatic communications.
  • Origin: From Persian farman ("decree, order"), from Middle Persian framan, from Old Persian framana ("command, order"), from fra- ("fore, forward").

Key Terms

Mughal Administration

  • Pronunciation: /ˈmuːɡəl ədˌmɪnɪˈstreɪʃən/
  • Definition: The centralised imperial governance system developed under Akbar, structured into provinces (Subahs) under Subedars, districts (Sarkars) under Faujdars, and sub-districts (Parganas), unified through the Mansabdari ranking system and the Dahsala revenue framework.
  • Context: The Mansabdari system was a unique grading system combining civil and military ranks (zat and sawar), while the Dahsala (Ain-i-Dahsala) revenue system calculated revenue based on the average of ten years' crop yields; both were formalised by Akbar's revenue minister Todar Mal.
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Medieval India). Prelims: high-frequency topic — tested on Mansabdari system (zat/sawar ranks), Jagirdari vs Zamindari distinction, and Ain-i-Dahsala revenue system. Mains: asked to compare Mughal administration with Mauryan and British systems; evaluate whether Akbar's reforms represented true centralisation. Focus on how the Mansabdari system worked, its strengths, and eventual breakdown.

Din-i-Ilahi

  • Pronunciation: /diːn ɪ ɪˈlɑːhi/
  • Definition: A short-lived syncretic spiritual order promulgated by Emperor Akbar in 1582, drawing elements from Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity, with no scriptures, priesthood, or places of worship, and attracting only about 18 followers.
  • Context: Also called Tawhid-i-Ilahi ("Oneness of the Divine") in Abul Fazl's writings; emerged from Akbar's Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) discussions at Fatehpur Sikri and his broader policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
  • UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Medieval India & Culture). Prelims: tested on its nature (not a full religion but a spiritual order), year of founding (1582), limited following (~18 members), and the sole Hindu follower (Birbal). Mains: relevant for discussing Akbar's religious policy, Sulh-i-Kul, secularism in medieval India, and comparison with Ashoka's Dhamma. Focus on why it failed and its significance for inter-faith dialogue.

Sources: Baburnama (Chagatai text, Beveridge translation), Abul Fazl — Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, NCERT — Themes in Indian History Part II, Satish Chandra — History of Medieval India, R.P. Tripathi — Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire