Gandhian Era — Champaran, Kheda, Rowlatt Satyagraha & Mass Movements

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after 21 years in South Africa. Within just four years, he had transformed from a relatively unknown lawyer into the acknowledged leader of India's national movement, commanding mass loyalty across classes, castes, and communities. His early campaigns — Champaran (1917), Kheda (1918), Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918), and the Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) — were laboratories where Gandhi refined his satyagraha method and built the organisational muscle for mass resistance. This chapter covers these foundational episodes and the political context that made Gandhi's rise possible.

Gandhi's Return to India: January 9, 1915

On 9 January 1915, Gandhi arrived at Bombay from South Africa, having spent 21 years there (1893–1914). This date is now observed as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (NRI Day).

Gokhale's mentorship:

Gandhi had left India in April 1893 as a 23-year-old lawyer to work in South Africa. There he developed and tested satyagraha — truth-force or soul-force — as a political technique against racial discrimination. He returned as a proven practitioner of non-violent mass resistance.

Ashram: Gandhi established his first Indian ashram at Kochrab, Ahmedabad on 25 May 1915. On 17 June 1917, the ashram shifted to a piece of land on the banks of the river Sabarmati — the famous Sabarmati Ashram — which became Gandhi's base for the next 13 years, until the Salt March in 1930.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — Gandhi's First Indian Satyagraha

Background: The Indigo Nightmare

Champaran district in Bihar was the centre of indigo cultivation under the tinkathia system — a plantation arrangement that had reduced peasants to near-bondage:

Raj Kumar Shukla's Invitation

Raj Kumar Shukla, a semi-literate Champaran peasant, had been trying for years to bring his community's plight to national attention. He approached Gandhi during the Lucknow Congress session (1916) and persistently urged him to visit Champaran. Gandhi relented and travelled to Champaran in April 1917.

Gandhi's Arrival and Methods

Outcomes

Why Champaran mattered:

• Demonstrated satyagraha was not just a South African technique but universally applicable
• Showed Gandhi's ability to work with local leaders (Rajendra Prasad) and build coalitions
• First successful challenge to the entrenched colonial agrarian system by a lawyer-turned-mass-leader
• Nehru later wrote: "Gandhi seemed to emerge from the millions of India"

Kheda Satyagraha (1918) — Peasants and Revenue

Background

In 1917–18, Kheda district of Gujarat experienced crop failure due to bad harvest, combined with severe plague (16,740 deaths in Kheda alone), and wartime price inflation. Under revenue regulations, if crop yield fell below 25% of normal, the government was obligated to grant revenue suspension (postponement of land revenue collection).

The peasants claimed the threshold had been crossed and demanded revenue remission. The British administration denied the claim and continued demanding full revenue collection.

Gandhi's Intervention

Gandhi launched the Kheda Satyagraha on 22 March 1918 — the first mass satyagraha in Gujarat.

Outcomes

The government eventually conceded, agreeing to suspend revenue collection from the poor peasants (while continuing to collect from those who could afford it). The outcome was a partial victory, but the political significance was enormous:

• Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as Gandhi's key lieutenant
• Peasant organisation in Gujarat laid the ground for future movements
• Demonstrated Gandhi's ability to articulate peasant grievances in the language of rights and justice

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) — Gandhi's First Fast

Background

Ahmedabad's textile mill workers had received a plague bonus (up to 80% of wages) in 1917–18 as an incentive to stay and work during the plague epidemic. When the epidemic subsided, mill owners announced withdrawal of the plague bonus. Workers demanded a 50% wage increase as a dearness allowance to cope with wartime inflation. Mill owners offered only 20%.

Gandhi's Role

Anusuyaben Sarabhai — social worker and sister of mill-owner Ambalal Sarabhai — brought the dispute to Gandhi. Gandhi intervened as a mediator.

Outcomes

The arbitrator awarded workers 35% wage increase — Gandhi's original assessment was vindicated. The Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (TLA), established during this strike, became one of India's earliest stable trade unions — linked to Gandhi's constructive programme.

Significance:

• First instance of Gandhi's fasting as political tool
• Established the TLA — a Gandhian labour union model
• Demonstrated Gandhi's ability to navigate between capital and labour without abandoning principle

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919)

Background

The Sedition Committee (1918), chaired by Justice S.A.T. Rowlatt, was appointed to recommend measures to combat revolutionary and "anarchical" activity in India. The British were concerned about the Revolutionary Terrorism movement (Punjab, Bengal) and Russian Bolshevik influence.

Provisions of the Rowlatt Act

The Act was an extension of the wartime Defence of India Act 1915 into peacetime — an unprecedented peacetime emergency measure.

Indian Response

Indians across the political spectrum condemned it as a "Black Act." Gandhi called it an insult to the people and launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Rowlatt Satyagraha (April 6, 1919)

The Rowlatt Satyagraha was India's first truly national popular agitation — crossing regional, caste, and religious lines. It showed that Gandhi could mobilise millions, not just elite Congress members.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

Context

On April 10, 1919, two popular leaders — Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal — were arrested in Amritsar. Public protests erupted. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer imposed prohibitory orders.

The Massacre

General Dyer's rationale: He later stated his intention was to "produce a sufficient moral effect" throughout Punjab — an explicit act of terror against a civilian population.

Hunter Commission (1919–20)

The British government appointed the Hunter Commission (headed by Lord William Hunter) to investigate. It censured Dyer and recommended his resignation. However:

• Dyer was allowed to retire with full pension
• The House of Lords praised his actions
• Morning Post newspaper raised £26,000 for Dyer as a "Defender of the Empire"
• Winston Churchill, speaking in Parliament, partially condemned the massacre but others in the government defended it
• The whitewash deepened Indian anger and accelerated the move toward non-cooperation

Indian response to Hunter Commission:

• Indian National Congress conducted its own independent inquiry
• Gandhi renounced his Kaiser-i-Hind medal (awarded by the British for services in South Africa)
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest
• The massacre became the defining radicalising moment of 20th century Indian nationalism

Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the Rowlatt Act occurred in the same year as the Government of India Act 1919 — a jarring contrast between constitutional reform and brutal repression.

Dyarchy System:

Limitations of dyarchy:

• Indian ministers had no control over finance — starved of funds
• Governor could override ministers on any "special responsibility"
• Reserved subjects (law and order, finance) remained with British
• Franchise was extremely limited — only ~3% of population could vote
• Indians called it "responsibility without power"

Gandhi's Emergence as Mass Leader

Why did Gandhi succeed where earlier leaders had not?

Key Terms

Timeline: 1915–1919

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

1. The Rowlatt Act was passed in: (A) 1917 (B) 1918 (C) 1919 (D) 1920 — Answer: (C) 1919

2. With reference to the Champaran Satyagraha, which of the following statements is correct?

   • (A) The tinkathia system obligated peasants to cultivate 1/5 of their land with indigo
   • (B) Raj Kumar Shukla invited Gandhi to Champaran
   • (C) The Champaran Agrarian Act was passed in 1916
   • (D) The satyagraha was launched from Sabarmati Ashram
   • Answer: (B) — Raj Kumar Shukla invited Gandhi; tinkathia = 3/20 (not exactly 1/5); Act was 1918

3. The Hunter Commission was set up to investigate: (A) Champaran indigo exploitation (B) Rowlatt Act protests (C) Jallianwala Bagh massacre (D) Kheda revenue dispute — Answer: (C)

4. Gandhi's first use of fasting as a political weapon in India was during the:

   • (A) Champaran Satyagraha (B) Kheda Satyagraha (C) Ahmedabad Mill Strike (D) Rowlatt Satyagraha
   • Answer: (C) Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

Mains

1. The years 1917–1919 were formative years for Mahatma Gandhi's transformation into India's mass leader. Trace the significance of Champaran, Kheda, and the Rowlatt Satyagraha in this transformation. (GS1, 15 marks)

2. How did the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919 transform the Indian national movement? Examine its political consequences and legacy. (GS1, 15 marks)

3. "Gandhi's early campaigns in India combined the moral force of satyagraha with the practical articulation of peasant and worker grievances." Discuss with reference to Champaran, Kheda, and the Ahmedabad Mill Strike. (GS1, 15 marks)

4. Critically examine the dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act 1919. Why did it fail to satisfy Indian political aspirations? (GS1, 10 marks)

Exam Strategy

For Prelims:

• Gandhi returned India: January 9, 1915 from South Africa (21 years away; Pravasi Bharatiya Divas)
• Tinkathia: 3 kathas per bigha = 3/20 of land for indigo
• Raj Kumar Shukla invited Gandhi to Champaran (Lucknow Congress, 1916)
• Champaran Agrarian Act: 1918 (not 1917)
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike: first fast as political weapon; 35% wage increase; arbitrator Anandshankar Dhruva
• Kheda: crop failure; Vallabhbhai Patel's debut in national politics
• Rowlatt Act: March 18, 1919; "no dalil, no vakeel, no appeal"
• Jallianwala Bagh: April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi); General Dyer; Hunter Commission: 379 deaths (official)
• Dyarchy: transferred (education, health, agriculture) vs reserved (law and order, finance) subjects

For Mains:

• Use a chronological structure: Return (1915) → Champaran (1917) → Kheda/Mill Strike (1918) → Rowlatt/Jallianwala (1919) → Gandhi as mass leader
• The three 1917–18 campaigns show Gandhi's versatility: agrarian struggle, peasant revenue, urban labour
• Jallianwala Bagh is a turning point — use it to show the moral bankruptcy of British imperialism and the radicalisation of Indian nationalism
• Compare Gandhi's methods with earlier moderates (Gokhale) and extremists (Tilak) — Gandhi synthesised both tendencies
• Dyarchy critique: "responsibility without power" — excellent conceptual phrase for exam
• Hunter Commission as whitewash: contrast with Congress inquiry; shows differential legitimacy of British and Indian versions of justice