Non-Cooperation, Khilafat & Civil Disobedience Movements

Introduction

The decade of 1919–1932 transformed the Indian national movement from an elite constitutional endeavour into a genuinely mass political movement. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–32) — both under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership — demonstrated that organised, non-violent mass resistance could shake imperial authority. These movements are central to UPSC GS Paper I's Modern India component.

Background: The Conjuncture of 1919

Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

The Rowlatt Act (formally the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919) gave the colonial government powers to arrest and detain any person without trial for up to two years for suspected revolutionary activity — no jury, no appeal. Gandhi called it the "Black Act" and launched a hartal (general strike) campaign against it.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

At a public meeting in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, on Baisakhi Day, Brigadier General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd — men, women, and children — without warning. The official figure was 379 killed and 1,200 wounded; Indian estimates were much higher.

Hunter Commission: Appointed by the Government to investigate; found Dyer's action "an error in judgment." The inadequacy of this response deepened Indian resentment.

Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a psychological turning point — it destroyed whatever residual faith remained in British justice and created the emotional fuel for mass mobilisation.

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)

Context

The Khilafat issue arose from the fate of the Ottoman Caliphate (Khilafat) after WWI. Indian Muslims, who regarded the Ottoman Sultan as Khalifa (Caliph) of the universal Muslim community, feared the Allied powers would dismember the Ottoman Empire and abolish the Caliphate.

Ali Brothers and the Movement

• Mohammad Ali Johar and Shaukat Ali (the "Ali Brothers") led the Khilafat Movement
• The Khilafat Committee was established in 1919
• They sought Gandhi's support to unite the two communities in resistance to British rule

Gandhi-Khilafat Alliance

Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to forge Hindu-Muslim unity for a mass movement. He endorsed the Khilafat cause, and the All India Khilafat Conference at Delhi in November 1919 gave its backing to Gandhi's non-cooperation programme.

This represented the high-water mark of Hindu-Muslim communal unity in the nationalist movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

Launch and Programme

The Indian National Congress adopted Gandhi's Non-Cooperation programme at the Calcutta Special Session (September 1920) and ratified it at the Nagpur Session (December 1920).

Gandhi's programme had two phases:

Constructive phase:

• Surrender of titles and honorary offices conferred by the British government
• Resignation from nominated positions in local bodies
• Boycott of Government-managed schools and colleges; establishment of national schools
• Boycott of British courts; use of private arbitration
• Boycott of legislative councils
• Refusal to attend Government functions
• Swadeshi: use of Indian-made goods; boycott of British cloth; promotion of khadi
• If these measures proved insufficient → non-payment of taxes

Mass Participation

The movement achieved unprecedented social breadth:

Peasant Movements Associated with NCM:

• Awadh (UP): Eka Movement (1921–22) — peasants organised against talukdars' oppressive practices
• Malabar: Mappila (Moplah) uprising (August 1921) — began as anti-zamindari/anti-British but turned communal; Gandhi was disturbed by the violence

The Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal (February 4, 1922)

On February 4, 1922, at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district (United Provinces), approximately 2,500 protesters marching toward the market were fired upon by police, killing 3 demonstrators. The enraged crowd retaliated by setting the police station on fire with about 22 policemen trapped inside.

Gandhi was appalled. He declared that the movement had not adequately internalised ahimsa (non-violence), and on February 12, 1922, he called off the Non-Cooperation Movement at the national level.

Gandhi undertook a five-day fast as penance. He was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years' imprisonment (released in 1924 on health grounds).

Criticism of Gandhi's withdrawal:

• Motilal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, C.R. Das, and Lala Lajpat Rai all criticised the decision as a betrayal of the mass movement at its peak
• The movement had been on the verge of achieving significant results
• Critics argued that one incident in a distant district should not have stopped a continent-wide movement

Aftermath: The Swaraj Party (1923)

Council Entry Debate

After the NCM's withdrawal, a debate erupted within Congress over whether to contest elections and enter legislative councils to "obstruct from within."

• C.R. Das (Deshbandhu) and Motilal Nehru favoured council entry — formed the Swaraj Party (January 1923)
• Gandhi and others opposed entering councils as it legitimised colonial institutions
• Compromise: The Swaraj Party was allowed to function within the broader Congress framework

The Swaraj Party contested the 1923 elections and won significant seats in Bengal and Central Provinces. They used the councils to obstruct budgets and legislative business, but could not achieve substantive policy changes.

The Road to Civil Disobedience (1927–1929)

Simon Commission (November 1927)

The British government appointed an all-white, seven-member statutory commission under Sir John Simon to review the Government of India Act 1919 and recommend constitutional reforms. The decision to exclude Indians entirely from a commission on India's own constitution sparked immediate outrage.

At its Madras Session (1927), the Congress resolved to boycott the Simon Commission at every stage and in every form.

When the Commission arrived in India (February 1928), it was greeted with "Simon, Go Back" demonstrations across the country. During one such protest in Lahore, police lathi-charged the crowd, seriously injuring Lala Lajpat Rai, who died weeks later (November 17, 1928). The killing inflamed nationalist sentiment.

Nehru Report (1928)

In response to Simon, the Congress convened an All-Parties Conference, and a committee under Motilal Nehru (with Jawaharlal Nehru as secretary) drafted the Nehru Report (1928) — the first constitutional framework drafted by Indians for India.

Key proposals:

• Dominion Status (not complete independence) as the immediate goal
• Fundamental rights for all citizens
• Joint electorates (rejecting separate electorates for minorities)
• Responsible government at Centre and provinces

Controversy: Muhammad Ali Jinnah proposed amendments to protect Muslim interests; when these were rejected, he moved away from Congress. The Nehru Report deepened the Hindu-Muslim political divide.

Lahore Congress and Poorna Swaraj (December 1929)

Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress at its Lahore Session (December 1929) adopted the Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) resolution, rejecting Dominion Status entirely.

On December 31, 1929, the tricolour flag was hoisted by Nehru on the banks of the River Ravi. January 26, 1930 was declared Purna Swaraj Diwas — observed as Independence Day annually until 1947; hence January 26 was chosen for the Constitution in 1950.

The Congress gave the British until January 26, 1930, to accept complete independence; when this was ignored, Gandhi launched a new campaign.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1931)

Salt Satyagraha / Dandi March

Gandhi chose salt as the vehicle of civil disobedience — the salt tax was universally felt, symbolised colonial exploitation of a basic necessity, and provided a clear, simple, dramatic act of defiance.

The Dandi March:

• Start: March 12, 1930 — Gandhi left Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad, with 78 satyagrahis
• Route: 385 kilometres (approximately 240 miles) through Gujarat villages
• Arrival at Dandi: April 5, 1930
• Salt picked up: April 6, 1930 at 8:30 a.m. — Gandhi broke the salt law

Impact:

• The March received worldwide media coverage (international journalists accompanied it)
• Triggered mass acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws across the country
• Over 60,000 people were arrested in the first year of the movement

The CDM Programme

The Civil Disobedience Movement went far beyond salt:

Participation by women: For the first time, women entered public political activity in large numbers — picketing shops, participating in processions.

Tribal participation: Particularly notable in Orissa, Andhra, and the forest regions.

Arrest of Gandhi and the Dharasana Salt Works Raid

Gandhi was arrested on May 5, 1930. His arrest did not stop the movement. At Dharasana Salt Works (Gujarat), hundreds of volunteers, led by Sarojini Naidu and Abbas Tyabji, marched in columns against police armed with steel-tipped lathis. The brutal beating of unarmed protesters was witnessed and reported by American journalist Webb Miller — giving the world a powerful image of non-violent resistance.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931)

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (also called the Delhi Pact) was signed on March 5, 1931 between Gandhi and Lord Irwin (Viceroy).

Key terms:

• Gandhi to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement
• Congress to participate in the Second Round Table Conference
• Release of all political prisoners (except those convicted of violence) — approximately 90,000 prisoners
• Salt manufacture allowed to villagers in coastal areas for personal use
• No inquiry into police excesses during the movement

Significance and criticism: Gandhi called off the CDM before full independence was won. Critics, especially the radical wing, felt he had given up too much. The hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on March 23, 1931 — just weeks after the pact — provoked public outrage that Gandhi could not prevent despite popular demand for their reprieve.

Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)

First Round Table Conference (November 1930 – January 1931)

• Congress boycotted; attended by princely states, Muslim League, and others
• No meaningful outcome without the Congress's participation

Second Round Table Conference (September–December 1931)

• Gandhi attended as Congress's sole representative
• Stalled over the communal question — separate electorates for minorities
• British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award would be his decision

Third Round Table Conference (November–December 1932)

• Congress again boycotted
• Attended by only marginal participants; produced the White Paper (1933), basis for Government of India Act 1935

Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932)

Communal Award (August 16, 1932)

British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, which provided separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, Christians — and significantly, for Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes).

Gandhi's Fast and the Poona Pact (September 24, 1932)

Gandhi, imprisoned in Yerwada Jail (Poona/Pune), announced a fast unto death against separate electorates for Depressed Classes, which he argued would permanently divide Hindu society and stigmatise Dalits.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (who had demanded separate electorates to protect Dalit political rights) was placed in an impossible position: if Gandhi died, there would be violence against Dalits.

After intense negotiations, the Poona Pact was signed on September 24, 1932 between Gandhi and Ambedkar (among 23 signatories including Madan Mohan Malaviya).

Ambedkar's critique: He argued Gandhi had coerced him by using his own life as a weapon. The Poona Pact, while increasing the number of seats, gave the Depressed Classes less actual political power since their candidates now needed Hindu majority support to win. This became a lasting source of tension between the Congress-led nationalist movement and Dalit politics.

Second Phase of Civil Disobedience (1932)

After the failure of the Second RTC, the CDM was relaunched in January 1932. However, this phase never achieved the intensity of the 1930 campaign. The government was now better prepared — mass arrests, press censorship, and special ordinances. The movement was gradually wound down through 1934.

Key difference from 1930 phase: Women's participation remained strong but urban middle-class enthusiasm had waned.

Key Personalities

Exam Strategy

For Prelims:

• Chauri Chaura: February 4, 1922; 22 policemen killed; Gandhi withdrew movement February 12, 1922
• Dandi March: March 12, 1930 — April 6, 1930; 385 km / ~240 miles; started with 78 satyagrahis
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact: March 5, 1931; ~90,000 prisoners released
• Communal Award: August 16, 1932 (Ramsay MacDonald); Poona Pact: September 24, 1932
• Poona Pact increased reserved seats from 71 to 148 but replaced separate electorates with joint electorates
• Simon Commission: 1927, all-white, "Simon Go Back"; Lala Lajpat Rai died after lathi-charge
• Lahore Congress: December 1929; Poorna Swaraj resolution; flag hoisted December 31, 1929

For Mains:

• NCM vs CDM: differences in methods, mass base, immediate trigger, outcome
• Communal Award and Poona Pact: explain both sides — Gandhi's view (caste division) vs Ambedkar's view (Dalit autonomy)
• Role of women in CDM — marks a structural shift in the nationalist movement
• Why the NCM was more spectacular but CDM more significant for mass politics
• Evaluate Gandhi's leadership: his genius in choosing symbols (salt) vs his controversial decisions (Chauri Chaura withdrawal, Poona Pact)

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2019: With reference to the Poona Pact (1932), which of the following statements are correct? (1) It provided for joint electorates for the Depressed Classes; (2) It increased the number of reserved seats for the Depressed Classes compared to the Communal Award. (Both correct)

2. UPSC CSE Prelims 2018: Which of the following is/are the immediate cause(s) of Gandhi's withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement? (a) Chauri Chaura incident; (b) The arrest of Gandhi. (Tests causes of NCM withdrawal)

3. UPSC CSE Prelims 2021: With reference to the Dandi March, which of the following statements is correct? (1) Gandhi started the March from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930; (2) The March was 385 km long. (Both correct)

4. UPSC CSE Prelims 2017: The 'Simon Commission' of 1927 was boycotted by Indians because: (a) all its members were British; (b) it was set up to suppress the Non-Cooperation Movement. (Tests Simon Commission facts)

Mains

1. UPSC CSE Mains 2016 (GS I): Critically analyse the Gandhian strategy of mass mobilisation. How did the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements transform the character of the Indian National Movement? (15 marks)

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS I): Examine the significance of the Dandi March in the context of the Civil Disobedience Movement. How did it change the nature of anti-colonial resistance in India? (15 marks)

3. UPSC CSE Mains 2015 (GS I): "The Poona Pact of 1932 was a triumph of Gandhi's strategy but a setback for Dalit representation." Critically evaluate. (15 marks)

4. UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS I): Discuss the factors that led to the emergence of mass movements in India between 1919 and 1932. How did the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance influence Hindu-Muslim relations in the long run? (15 marks)