Fibre to Fabric

Spinning is the process of drawing out and twisting fibres to make yarn (thread).

Why twist? Individual fibres are short and weak. Twisting locks them together — friction between fibres gives the yarn strength. More twist = stronger but stiffer yarn.

Traditional spinning tools:

• Takli (hand spindle): Simple weighted spindle; roving attached to top; spindle dropped and twisted by hand → yarn winds onto spindle as it spins. Used for fine cotton and wool; very slow; used in villages.
• Charkha (spinning wheel): Wheel drives spindle via a belt; spinner turns the wheel with one hand while drawing out fibre with the other → faster than takli; associated with Gandhi's Swadeshi movement — spinning khadi was a political act of self-reliance.

Industrial spinning (modern):

• Ring spinning: Most common industrial method; roving fed through rollers (drafting zone) → twisted by ring traveller rotating around bobbin → continuous high-speed yarn production
• Open-end (rotor) spinning: Fibres fed into high-speed rotating rotor; yarn formed directly; faster than ring spinning; suitable for coarser counts

Yarn count: A measure of yarn fineness. In the cotton system (Ne), higher count = finer yarn. Mulberry silk yarn is extremely fine (high count); carpet wool is coarse (low count).

India's spinning industry:

• India is the world's largest producer of cotton yarn and second largest fibre producer
• Tiruppur (Tamil Nadu) = knitwear hub; Ludhiana (Punjab) = woollen knitwear; Surat (Gujarat) = synthetic yarn
• National Handloom Development Corporation (NHDC): Supports handloom weavers with yarn supply at controlled prices

Weaving interlaces two sets of yarns at right angles to produce fabric.

Basic weaving structure:

• Warp threads: Run lengthwise (along the loom); under high tension
• Weft threads: Run crosswise; inserted through the warp by a shuttle
• The interlacing pattern determines fabric type:
  • Plain weave: Each weft thread goes over one warp, under the next → simple, strong, tight (cotton muslin, linen)
  • Twill weave: Weft passes over 2–3 warps before going under → diagonal lines on fabric; durable (denim, herringbone wool)
  • Satin weave: Weft floats over many warps → smooth, lustrous surface (satin fabric); silk saris often use this

Types of looms:

Knitting loops yarn through itself with needles (instead of interlacing two separate yarns):

• A single yarn makes continuous interlocked loops
• Weft knitting (hand knitting): Each row of loops made from a single continuous yarn → if one loop breaks, the fabric "runs"
• Warp knitting (machine knitting): Multiple yarns, less likely to run; used for stretch fabrics, sportswear
• Knitted fabric is more elastic/stretchable than woven fabric → sweaters, hosiery, T-shirts

India's handloom heritage (UPSC relevance):

• ~43 lakh handlooms in India (second only to Bangladesh in number); ~35 lakh weavers
• National Handloom Day: August 7 (commemorates Swadeshi Movement launch, 1905)
• Famous handloom clusters: Varanasi (Banarasi silk), Kanchipuram (silk), Pochampally (ikat), Patan (Patola), Chanderi, Maheshwar
• GI tags for handloom textiles protect weaver communities' intellectual property
• Handloom Mark: Government certification (Bureau of Indian Standards) that certifies the product is handloom-made

Wool production:

Types of wool (by animal):

• Merino wool (from Merino sheep): Finest quality; originated in Spain; used for high-end clothing
• Pashmina: From Changthangi goat's undercoat; hand-spun in Kashmir; a genuine Pashmina shawl takes 180+ hours to weave; can pass through a finger ring ("ring shawl")

Wool processing: Shearing (cutting fleece) → Scouring (washing to remove grease/dirt) → Sorting/Grading (by fineness) → Carding (combing fibres) → Spinning → Weaving/Knitting

India's wool production:

• India produces mainly coarse wool (not fine Merino) — used for carpets, blankets, rough textiles
• Carpet wool: Bhadohi-Mirzapur (UP) and Kashmir carpet industry uses imported fine wool + domestic coarse wool
• J&K: Traditional Pashmina, carpet weaving, shahtoosh (banned — obtained from Tibetan antelope/chiru, a protected species)

Shahtoosh controversy:

• Shahtoosh shawls are made from the fine underfur of the Tibetan antelope (Chiru) — currently Near Threatened per IUCN (downgraded from Endangered in 2016 due to population recovery; previously believed critically endangered)
• Hunting chiru for shahtoosh is illegal (CITES Appendix I); India has banned its trade
• Despite ban, illegal trade continues; significant enforcement challenge