BharatNotes Framework: Types of Bodies
India's governance architecture operates through three tiers of bodies beyond the core executive:
| Type | Basis | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Constitutional Bodies | Directly created by the Constitution | CAG (Art 148), UPSC (Art 315), ECI (Art 324), Finance Commission (Art 280) |
| Statutory Bodies | Created by an Act of Parliament | SEBI, TRAI, CCI, NGT, NHRC, CVC, Lokpal |
| Non-Statutory Bodies | Created by executive resolution/order | NITI Aayog, NBT, Planning Commission (defunct) |
Key distinction for exam: Constitutional bodies can only be abolished/modified by constitutional amendment. Statutory bodies can be wound up by Parliament amending the parent Act. Non-statutory bodies can be dissolved by executive order alone.
SEBI — Securities and Exchange Board of India
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Statutory basis | SEBI Act, 1992 |
| Set up | 1988 (non-statutory) → statutory from 30 January 1992 |
| Composition | Chairman + up to 9 members (2 from Ministry of Finance, 1 from RBI, up to 5 others — at least 3 whole-time) |
| Current Chairman | Tuhin Kanta Pandey (1987-batch IAS, Odisha cadre; assumed charge 1 March 2025 for 3-year term; succeeded Madhabi Puri Buch — India's first woman SEBI Chairman) |
| Headquarters | Mumbai |
Three-fold powers:
- Regulatory — registers and regulates intermediaries (stock brokers, mutual funds, FPIs, credit rating agencies, depositories)
- Investigative — calls for information, conducts inspections, compels production of records
- Quasi-judicial — holds inquiries, passes orders including penalties, debarment, and disgorgement of profits
Appeal: SEBI orders → Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) → Supreme Court
2024-25 developments:
- Algo Trading Framework (4 February 2025): Mandates safer retail participation in algorithmic trading — APIs replaced by exchange-approved Algo-IDs; brokers must have kill-switch capability; phased implementation with full enforcement from August 2025
- FPI Disclosure Norms (2024): Tightened beneficial ownership disclosure to prevent minimum public shareholding circumvention
- SEBI data: algorithmic trading accounts for 97% of FPI profits and 96% of proprietary trader profits in F&O (FY2024)
TRAI — Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Statutory basis | TRAI Act, 1997 |
| Established | 20 February 1997 |
| Amended | TRAI (Amendment) Act, 2000 — separated regulatory (TRAI) from adjudicatory (TDSAT) functions |
| Composition | 1 Chairperson + 2 full-time Members + 2 part-time Members |
| Current Chairperson | Anil Kumar Lahoti |
| Headquarters | New Delhi |
Functions: Tariff regulation, Quality of Service (QoS) standards, spectrum management recommendations to DoT, consumer protection, interconnection regulations.
Important distinction: TRAI's tariff orders are binding; but its recommendations on spectrum, licensing, and policy are advisory (government may accept or reject).
TDSAT (Telecom Disputes Settlement & Appellate Tribunal):
- Created by TRAI Amendment Act, 2000 — fully independent of TRAI
- Adjudicates disputes between telecom service providers, and between providers and consumers
- Hears appeals against TRAI orders
- Composition: Chairperson (retired SC judge or retired Chief Justice of HC) + 2 Members
- Appeal from TDSAT: Supreme Court directly
2024-25 developments:
- 5G rapid expansion — India among fastest globally in 5G rollout; TRAI issued recommendations on spectrum sharing, leasing, terahertz spectrum
- OTT Regulation: TRAI held open house discussions (May 2024) on regulating OTT communication apps; framework still under consultation as of 2026
CCI — Competition Commission of India
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Statutory basis | Competition Act, 2002 |
| Operational | 20 May 2009 (enforcement provisions) |
| Composition | 1 Chairperson + 2 to 6 Members |
| Current Chairperson | Ravneet Kaur — first woman to head CCI (appointed 2023); additionally given charge of NFRA Chairperson (3 April 2025) |
| Headquarters | New Delhi |
Key functions:
- Section 3: Prohibits anti-competitive agreements (cartels, bid-rigging, market allocation, exclusive dealing)
- Section 4: Prevents abuse of dominant position
- Combination Regulations: Merger/acquisition approvals above threshold
Appeal: CCI orders → NCLAT (National Company Law Appellate Tribunal) → Supreme Court
Competition (Amendment) Act, 2023 — Presidential assent 11 April 2023:
| Change | Detail |
|---|---|
| Deal Value Threshold | New: transactions > ₹2,000 crore with substantial India operations require CCI approval — targets Big Tech acquisitions of nascent startups |
| Merger Timeline | Reduced from 210 days to 150 days; prima facie opinion within 30 days (else deemed approved) |
| Settlement Mechanism | Parties can settle before final order (Section 48A) — vertical restraints and abuse of dominance cases |
| Global Turnover Penalties | Penalties for anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominance now based on global turnover (not India turnover only) |
| Hub-and-Spoke Cartels | Expanded scope to parties not directly in identical trade |
| Limitation Period | 3-year limitation for filing complaints (new) |
2024-25 major orders:
- Google Android penalty (₹1,337.76 crore): NCLAT upheld CCI's 2022 penalty on 29 March 2024 (with modifications); Google's SC appeal pending
- First settlement order (May 2025): CCI passed India's first-ever settlement order under Section 48A — Google Android TV case, penalty ₹20.24 crore
- E-commerce investigation: Ongoing probe into anti-competitive smartphone exclusive launches by Amazon/Flipkart with major smartphone brands
- CCI registered 54 antitrust cases and received 149 merger filings in 2025
NGT — National Green Tribunal
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Statutory basis | National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 |
| Established | 18 October 2010 |
| Significance | India was the 3rd country (after Australia and New Zealand) to establish a specialised environmental court |
| Current Chairperson | Justice Prakash Shrivastava (retired Chief Justice, Calcutta HC; appointed 21 August 2023) |
| Principal Bench | New Delhi |
Composition:
- Chairperson: Retired judge of the Supreme Court (as specified by NGT Act, Section 5)
- Judicial Members: Retired High Court judges; minimum 10, maximum 20
- Expert Members: Experts in environment, forest, natural resources; minimum 10, maximum 20
- Each bench must include at least 1 Judicial Member and 1 Expert Member
Five Zonal Benches: Principal (New Delhi), Central (Bhopal), Western (Pune), Southern (Chennai), Eastern (Kolkata)
Jurisdiction: Substantial questions relating to environment under: Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Air Act 1981, Environment Protection Act 1986, Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, Biological Diversity Act 2002.
Key distinctions:
- NGT cannot review its own orders — appeals go directly to Supreme Court (not High Courts)
- NGT cannot award punitive/exemplary damages — only compensation and restitution
- High Courts retain jurisdiction for environment matters outside NGT's listed laws
2024-25 landmark orders:
- Yamuna floodplain: no construction regardless of developmental purpose (April 2025)
- Yamuna desilting: directed Delhi authorities to desilt 24 drains before monsoon 2025 (February 2025)
- CRZ 2019 challenge: Western Bench constituted a larger bench (October 2024) to hear challenge to CRZ Notification 2019
NHRC — National Human Rights Commission
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Statutory basis | Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 |
| Established | 12 October 1993 |
| Current Chairperson | Justice V. Ramasubramanian (retired SC judge; appointed 23 December 2024) |
| Headquarters | New Delhi |
Composition (post-PHR Amendment Act, 2019):
- Chairperson: retired CJI or retired SC judge (2019 amendment expanded eligibility from only retired CJI)
- 5 full-time Members: 1 retired SC judge; 1 retired HC Chief Justice; 3 with knowledge of human rights (at least 1 woman)
- 7 ex-officio deemed members: Chairpersons of NCSC, NCST, NCW, NCM, NCBC, NCPCR + Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities
Powers and limitations:
- Can summon, inspect institutions, recommend compensation
- Recommendations are NOT binding — government must respond within 1 month but may reject
- Cannot investigate complaints more than 1 year old
- Cannot investigate matters pending before State Human Rights Commissions
Annual Report 2023-24:
- Complaints received: 76,891
- Cases disposed: 73,958
- Compensation recommended: ₹1,820.47 lakh+
- Suo motu cases: 106; Spot inquiries: 30
CVC — Central Vigilance Commission
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Basis | Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003 (earlier by executive resolution, 1964) |
| Composition | Central Vigilance Commissioner (Chairman) + not more than 2 Vigilance Commissioners |
| Appointment | President, on recommendation of: PM (Chair) + Home Minister + Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha |
| Current CVC | Praveen Kumar Srivastava (as of February 2026) |
Role in anti-corruption ecosystem:
- Superintendence over CBI for cases under Prevention of Corruption Act
- CBI requires CVC's consent to investigate officers of Joint Secretary rank and above
- Lokpal can refer cases to CVC; CVC reports back — they work alongside, not hierarchically
- Advisory in nature — CVC cannot punish directly; can only advise departments on penalty
Annual Report 2023 data:
- Corruption complaints received: 74,203
- Resolved: 66,373 | Pending: 7,830
- Top sectors: Railways (10,447 complaints), Delhi Local Bodies (7,665)
- Conviction rate: 71.47% (down from 74.59% in 2022)
- CBI: 198 bribery traps; 6,900+ corruption cases pending trial; 361 pending for over 20 years
CAG — Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Constitutional basis: Articles 148–151
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| 148 | Establishment; appointed by President; removal only by SC-equivalent process (address by both Houses) |
| 149 | Duties and powers (prescribed by Parliament) |
| 150 | Accounts of Union and States to be kept as CAG prescribes |
| 151 | Audit reports to be laid before Parliament/State Legislature |
Current CAG: K. Sanjay Murthy — 15th CAG; sworn in 21 November 2024 by President Droupadi Murmu.
Key 2024-25 audit findings:
- PMKVY (PM Kaushal Vikas Yojana): Of 56 lakh certified (2016-2024), only 41% (23 lakh) were placed; 20% state funds unutilised; 36% candidates yet to receive ₹500 DBT payout
- PMAY-G: 41% of allocated funds not utilised as of 2024-25 revised estimates
- J&K: ₹12,000 crore in pending utilisation certificates till March 2024
UPSC — Union Public Service Commission
Constitutional basis: Articles 315–323
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| 315 | UPSC and State PSCs |
| 316 | Appointment by President; eligibility: 10 years in Central/State government or SC/HC |
| 317 | Removal: Presidential reference to SC; SC inquiry |
| 320 | Functions: recruitment, promotions, transfers, disciplinary matters |
| 323 | Annual report to President, laid before Parliament |
Current Chairperson: Smt. Preeti Sudan (as of April 2026)
CSE 2024 data:
- Vacancies notified: 1,129
- Candidates finally recommended: 1,009 (725 men, 284 women)
- AIR 1: Shakti Dubey (Prayagraj; PG in Biochemistry, BHU) — 3 of top 5 were women
- Prelims date: 16 June 2024
CSE 2026: Notification released 4 February 2026; 933 vacancies; Prelims scheduled 24 May 2026
Election Commission of India
Constitutional basis: Article 324 — superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, President, Vice-President.
Appointment (post-CEC Act, 2023): President on recommendation of a Selection Committee: PM (Chair) + a Cabinet Minister nominated by PM + Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha. The 2023 Act excluded the CJI from the committee (previously directed by Supreme Court's Anoop Baranwal judgment, March 2023), which is separately challenged.
Current composition (April 2026):
- CEC: Gyanesh Kumar (1988-batch IAS, Kerala cadre) — 26th CEC; appointed 19 February 2025; term till 26 January 2029
- EC: Sukhbir Singh Sandhu (Uttarakhand cadre IAS; appointed March 2024)
- EC: Vivek Joshi (1989-batch Haryana cadre IAS; former Census Commissioner)
Notable (April 2026): Both Houses of Parliament rejected an impeachment motion against CEC Gyanesh Kumar on 6 April 2026 — the first-ever impeachment attempt against a serving CEC.
One Nation One Election: Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill, 2024 introduced in Lok Sabha 17 December 2024; referred to JPC 19 December 2024; JPC tenure extended to Monsoon Session 2026. Requires 2/3rd majority in both Houses + ratification by half the State Assemblies.
Comparative Framework — Key Exam Distinctions
Binding vs Advisory:
| Body | Orders/Recommendations |
|---|---|
| SEBI, CCI, NGT, ECI | Binding — enforceable orders, appeals to tribunals/courts |
| TRAI (tariffs) | Binding |
| TRAI (spectrum/licensing) | Advisory to government |
| NHRC | Advisory — government must respond within 1 month but may reject |
| CVC | Advisory — cannot punish; only advises departments |
| CAG | Advisory — reports to Parliament; no direct recovery/punishment power |
| UPSC | Advisory by convention (President not constitutionally bound, but in practice binding) |
Appeal hierarchy:
| Body | First Appeal | Second Appeal |
|---|---|---|
| SEBI | Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) | Supreme Court |
| CCI | NCLAT | Supreme Court |
| NGT | Supreme Court directly | — |
| TRAI | TDSAT | Supreme Court |
| Others (NHRC, CVC, CAG, UPSC, ECI) | High Court (writ) / Supreme Court | — |
Chairperson eligibility — key distinctions:
| Body | Chairperson Must Be |
|---|---|
| NGT | Retired SC judge (Section 5, NGT Act) |
| NHRC | Retired CJI or retired SC judge (post-2019 amendment) |
| TDSAT | Retired SC judge or retired HC Chief Justice |
| CAG | No judicial requirement — presidential appointee |
| UPSC | 10 years in Central/State service |
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
SEBI — Madhabi Puri Buch Controversy (2024)
- Hindenburg Research (August 2024) published allegations against SEBI Chairperson Madhabi Puri Buch, claiming she had financial stakes in offshore funds linked to the Adani Group — which SEBI was investigating.
- SEBI and Buch denied the allegations. Around 1,000 SEBI staff members staged a rare protest outside the headquarters in September 2024 demanding her resignation — an unprecedented development in regulatory history.
- The Lokpal gave a clean chit to Buch citing lack of credible evidence; however a Mumbai court ordered the Anti-Corruption Bureau to register an FIR against her and five others (February 2025).
- A Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) was demanded by the Opposition; not constituted as of April 2026.
- The controversy raised questions about conflict of interest governance in regulatory appointments and the importance of asset disclosure for regulators.
- Tuhin Kanta Pandey (1987-batch IAS, Odisha cadre; former DIPAM Secretary who led the Air India privatisation) was appointed SEBI Chairperson on 1 March 2025 after Buch's term ended.
Competition Amendment Act, 2023 — Key Provisions
The Competition (Amendment) Act, 2023 made major changes to the Competition Act, 2002:
| Change | Significance |
|---|---|
| Deal value threshold | Acquisitions where deal value > ₹2,000 crore AND entity has significant India presence must be notified — targets Big Tech "killer acquisitions"; effective 10 September 2024 |
| Settlement and commitment mechanism | Parties can settle CCI investigations — reduces litigation burden |
| Penalty basis | Changed from turnover in India to global turnover — massive increase in potential penalties for multinationals |
| Merger timeline | Reduced from 210 days to 150 days |
| Hub and spoke cartels | Explicitly covered — targets algorithmic price coordination |
Election Commission — CEC Act 2023 vs Supreme Court
- The Supreme Court in Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (March 2023) held that a high-powered committee (PM, Leader of Opposition, CJI) should select the CEC and Election Commissioners, pending Parliament enacting a law.
- Parliament responded with the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 — establishing a selection committee of PM, Home Minister, and Leader of Opposition (CJI excluded).
- The SC's judgment was effectively overridden. Critics argued this undermines ECI independence; government argued Parliament is competent to legislate on this subject.
- Gyanesh Kumar was appointed Chief Election Commissioner in February 2025 under the new Act.
CAG — New Appointment (2024)
- K. Sanjay Murthy was appointed as the 15th CAG in November 2024 (succeeding Girish Chandra Murthy). He is a 1989-batch IAS officer from the Himachal Pradesh cadre.
- The CAG's increasing use of data analytics (iAudit platform) enables pattern detection across large datasets — improving audit coverage of Direct Benefit Transfer schemes.
NHRC — Structural Independence Debate
- NHRC's non-binding recommendation power continues to attract criticism — its findings against states are regularly ignored.
- As of 2026, the government has not moved to give NHRC binding powers — a gap flagged by the UN treaty bodies in India's Universal Periodic Review.
Exam Strategy
High-frequency Prelims data:
- SEBI: 1992 Act; Chairman Tuhin Kanta Pandey (March 2025)
- TRAI: 1997 Act; 20 February 1997; TDSAT hears TRAI appeals → SC
- CCI: Competition Act 2002; operational May 2009; Competition Amendment Act 2023 (deal value threshold ₹2,000 crore; global turnover penalties; 150-day merger timeline)
- NGT: 18 October 2010; 3rd country with specialised environmental court; appeals → SC directly (not HC)
- NHRC: 1993 Act; 12 October 1993; post-2019 amendment — retired CJI or SC judge
- CAG: Art 148-151; K. Sanjay Murthy (15th CAG, Nov 2024)
- UPSC: Art 315-323; CSE 2024 — 1,009 selected; AIR 1 Shakti Dubey
- ECI: Art 324; CEC Gyanesh Kumar (Feb 2025); CEC Act 2023 (no CJI in selection panel)
Mains angles:
- "Regulatory bodies in India have powers but lack teeth" — use CVC (advisory only), NHRC (non-binding), contrast with SEBI and CCI (binding orders)
- Competition Amendment Act 2023: deal-value threshold targets Big Tech kill-zone acquisitions — connect to digital market regulation globally
- ECI appointment controversy: Supreme Court (Anoop Baranwal) vs Parliament's CEC Act 2023 — judicial independence vs parliamentary supremacy
Cross-link: For latest appointments, regulatory orders, and body-specific current affairs, see Ujiyari.com.
