BharatNotes India's Research and Development Landscape — An Overview
India has built a vast network of publicly funded research institutions since independence. However, the country's overall R&D spending remains significantly below the global average and far behind major economies.
R&D Expenditure — The Numbers
| Parameter | India | Comparison |
|---|---|---|
| GERD as % of GDP | 0.64% (latest available data) | China: 2.4%, USA: 3.5%, South Korea: 4.8%, Germany: 3.1% |
| Government share | Approximately 55-60% of total R&D spending | In developed countries, private sector contributes 65-75% |
| Private sector share | Approximately 36-40% | Far below OECD average of 70% |
| Researchers per million population | Approximately 255 | China: 1,500+, USA: 4,800+, South Korea: 8,700+ |
| Global ranking (R&D expenditure) | 5th in absolute terms (PPP) | But per capita spending is among the lowest in G20 |
For Mains: India's R&D spending at 0.64% of GDP is a persistent structural weakness. Despite multiple committees recommending an increase to at least 2% of GDP, actual spending has remained stagnant at around 0.6-0.7% for over a decade. The private sector's low share (36-40%) is a major concern — in countries like South Korea, Japan, and the US, private R&D accounts for 65-75% of total spending. The Anusandhan NRF is designed to address this gap.
Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)
Background and Establishment
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Act | Anusandhan National Research Foundation Act, 2023 — passed by Parliament in August 2023 |
| Replaces | Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), established under the SERB Act, 2008 |
| Total budget | Rs 50,000 crore over 5 years |
| Government contribution | Rs 14,000 crore (28%) |
| Non-government contribution | Rs 36,000 crore (72%) — from private sector, philanthropy, international sources |
| Chaired by | Prime Minister (ex officio) |
| Governed by | Governing Board chaired by PM; Executive Council to manage operations |
How ANRF Differs from SERB
| Feature | SERB | ANRF |
|---|---|---|
| Scope | Funded only science and engineering research | Covers natural sciences, technology, agriculture, health, and social sciences |
| Funding source | Only government funds (approximately Rs 1,000 crore annually) | Government + private sector + philanthropy + international |
| Scale | Limited budget constrained outreach | Rs 50,000 crore over 5 years — 10x scale-up |
| Private sector role | None | Actively seeks private sector R&D investment and participation |
| Strategy role | Primarily a funding body | Also tasked with preparing national R&D roadmap and identifying priority areas |
Key Objectives of ANRF
| Objective | Detail |
|---|---|
| Seed, grow, promote R&D | Fund research across universities, colleges, and research institutions |
| Bridge academia-industry gap | Create mechanisms for industry-funded research in academic institutions |
| Prioritise national challenges | Direct research toward areas of national priority — climate, health, agriculture, energy, defence |
| Build research capacity | Strengthen research infrastructure in state universities and colleges (which are weakest links) |
| Equity and inclusion | Ensure research opportunities reach institutions beyond IITs and IISc — particularly in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities |
For Prelims: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) was established under the ANRF Act 2023. It replaces the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB). It has a total budget of Rs 50,000 crore over 5 years, with Rs 14,000 crore from the government and the remainder from non-government sources. It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 26 September 1942 |
| Nature | Autonomous body under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) |
| President | Prime Minister of India (ex officio) |
| Vice President | Union Minister of Science and Technology (ex officio) |
| Director General | Administrative head |
| Network | 38 national laboratories, 39 outreach centres, 3 innovation complexes, 5 units |
| Staff | Approximately 4,500 scientists and 8,000 technical personnel |
| Budget | Approximately Rs 5,000-6,000 crore annually |
Key CSIR Laboratories
| Laboratory | Location | Focus Area |
|---|---|---|
| CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (NCL) | Pune | Chemical sciences and engineering |
| CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) | Hyderabad | Molecular biology and genetics |
| CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) | Bengaluru | Aerospace engineering; Tejas LCA development support |
| CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) | Lucknow | Drug discovery and development |
| CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP) | Dehradun | Petroleum refining and petrochemicals |
| CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) | Goa | Oceanography and marine sciences |
| CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) | Nagpur | Environmental engineering |
| CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI) | Chennai | Leather technology |
| CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT) | Hyderabad | Chemical technology |
| CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) | Hyderabad | Geophysics and earth sciences |
CSIR Achievements
| Achievement | Detail |
|---|---|
| COVID-19 response | CSIR labs developed diagnostic kits, repurposed drugs, and sequenced SARS-CoV-2 genomes |
| Aarogya Setu | CSIR contributed to the development of the contact-tracing app |
| Sickle Cell Mission | CSIR-CCMB contributing to India's Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission |
| CSIR-800 | Programme targeting innovations benefiting 800 million people living on less than USD 2/day |
| Patents | CSIR consistently ranks among India's top patent filers |
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 3 May 1971 |
| Role | Nodal department for formulation, coordination, and promotion of S&T activities |
| Key programmes | SERB (now ANRF), INSPIRE, Nano Mission, National Supercomputing Mission |
| Budget | Approximately Rs 6,000-7,000 crore annually |
Major DST Programmes
| Programme | Objective |
|---|---|
| INSPIRE | Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research — scholarships and fellowships from school to postdoctoral level |
| Nano Mission | Phase II operational — promoting nanoscience and nanotechnology research and applications |
| National Supercomputing Mission | Building a network of supercomputers across India — target of 64 petaflops computing capacity |
| KIRAN | Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement — promoting women in science |
| Science and Technology Infrastructure Facilities (STIF) | Building shared research infrastructure in universities |
| Technology Development Board (TDB) | Financial assistance for commercialisation of indigenous technology |
| NIDHI | National Initiative for Developing and Harnessing Innovations — supporting startups from idea to market |
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 1911 (as Indian Research Fund Association); renamed ICMR in 1949 |
| Under | Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare |
| Network | 26 national institutes and centres |
| Function | Formulation, coordination, and promotion of biomedical research |
| Key institutes | National Institute of Virology (Pune), National Institute of Nutrition (Hyderabad), National Institute of Epidemiology (Chennai), National Institute of Malaria Research (Delhi) |
ICMR During COVID-19
| Contribution | Detail |
|---|---|
| Testing strategy | ICMR led India's COVID-19 testing strategy — approved testing protocols and labs |
| Covaxin development | ICMR-NIV isolated the SARS-CoV-2 virus strain used by Bharat Biotech to develop Covaxin |
| Serosurveys | Conducted multiple rounds of national seroprevalence surveys |
| Treatment guidelines | ICMR issued national clinical management protocols for COVID-19 |
| Genome sequencing | ICMR-led Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG) for variant surveillance |
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 1929 (as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research); renamed in 1947 |
| Under | Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture |
| Network | 113 ICAR institutes, 71 agricultural universities, 731 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) |
| Function | Agricultural research, education, and front-line extension |
| Key institutes | IARI (New Delhi), IVRI (Bareilly), NDRI (Karnal), CIFT (Kochi), CIFRI (Barrackpore) |
Key ICAR Contributions
| Area | Achievement |
|---|---|
| Green Revolution | IARI developed high-yielding wheat varieties (in collaboration with CIMMYT) that enabled the Green Revolution |
| Crop varieties | Developed over 5,000 improved crop varieties for diverse agro-climatic zones |
| KVK network | 731 Krishi Vigyan Kendras provide frontline extension — the world's largest farm advisory network |
| Basmati GI | Research supporting India's GI claims on Basmati rice |
| Climate-resilient agriculture | National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) programme |
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 3 August 1954 |
| Reports to | Directly to the Prime Minister (not under any ministry) |
| Key institutions | BARC (Mumbai), IGCAR (Kalpakkam), RRCAT (Indore), TIFR (Mumbai), VECC (Kolkata) |
| Nuclear power | Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) operates India's nuclear power plants |
| Current capacity | 25 operational reactors with installed capacity of approximately 8,880 MW (as of April 2025) |
Three-Stage Nuclear Programme
| Stage | Technology | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Stage I | Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium | Operational — 18 PHWRs running |
| Stage II | Fast Breeder Reactors using plutonium | Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam — AERB cleared fuel loading in October 2025; first criticality imminent |
| Stage III | Thorium-based reactors | Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) under development; India has 25% of world's thorium reserves |
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 1958 (merger of Defence Science Organisation and technical development establishments) |
| Under | Ministry of Defence |
| Network | 52 laboratories across India |
| Staff | Over 5,000 scientists and approximately 25,000 technical staff |
| Budget | Approximately Rs 23,000 crore annually |
Key DRDO Achievements
| System/Programme | Detail |
|---|---|
| Agni series | Intercontinental ballistic missile series (Agni-I through Agni-V; Agni-V range: 5,000+ km) |
| BrahMos | Supersonic cruise missile (India-Russia joint venture); BrahMos-II hypersonic version under development |
| Tejas LCA | Light Combat Aircraft — India's indigenous fighter aircraft programme |
| Arjun MBT | Main Battle Tank developed for Indian Army |
| Akash | Medium-range surface-to-air missile system |
| Anti-Satellite (ASAT) | Mission Shakti (2019) — India successfully tested anti-satellite missile capability |
| Kaveri engine | Gas turbine engine development (long-standing programme) |
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 15 August 1969 |
| Under | Department of Space (reports directly to PM) |
| Headquarters | Bengaluru |
| Launch centres | Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota), Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station |
| Budget | Approximately Rs 13,000-16,000 crore annually |
Key ISRO Achievements
| Mission/Programme | Detail |
|---|---|
| Chandrayaan-3 (2023) | Successful soft landing on the Moon's south pole — India became the 4th country to soft-land on the Moon and the first to land near the south pole |
| Mangalyaan (2014) | Mars Orbiter Mission — India became the first Asian nation to reach Mars and the first in the world to do so on its maiden attempt |
| Gaganyaan | India's human spaceflight programme — uncrewed missions completed; crewed mission planned |
| PSLV | Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle — workhorse of ISRO; launched 400+ foreign satellites from 36 countries |
| GSLV Mk III (LVM3) | Heavy-lift launch vehicle; used for Chandrayaan-3 and commercial launches including OneWeb satellites |
| NavIC | Navigation with Indian Constellation — India's regional satellite navigation system (7 satellites) |
| Aditya-L1 | India's first space-based solar observatory at L1 point — launched September 2023 |
Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Established | 1986 |
| Under | Ministry of Science and Technology |
| Key institutions | National Institute of Immunology (NII), International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS) |
| Budget | Approximately Rs 3,000-3,500 crore annually |
| Major programmes | BIRAC (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council), National Biopharma Mission, Genome India Project |
DBT and COVID-19
| Contribution | Detail |
|---|---|
| Covaxin support | DBT's BIRAC provided funding and regulatory support for Covaxin development |
| Genome sequencing | DBT supported INSACOG for SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance |
| mRNA vaccine platform | DBT supported development of India's first mRNA COVID-19 vaccine |
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
Key Programmes
| Programme | Objective |
|---|---|
| Digital India | Flagship programme for digital governance, digital infrastructure, and digital empowerment |
| IndiaAI Mission | Rs 10,372 crore mission for developing AI compute infrastructure — onboarded 38,000+ GPUs |
| National Supercomputing Mission | Joint programme with DST — building supercomputing infrastructure |
| Semiconductor Mission | India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) — Rs 76,000 crore for establishing semiconductor fabrication and design |
| CERT-In | Indian Computer Emergency Response Team — cybersecurity |
| STPI | Software Technology Parks of India — IT export promotion |
Patent Filing Trends in India
Overall Trends
| Metric | Data |
|---|---|
| FY 2024-25 applications | 110,375 patent applications filed — approximately 19.7% year-on-year increase |
| Global ranking | 6th largest patent filer globally with 64,480 applications in 2023 |
| Fastest growth | India recorded the fastest growth (+15.7%) in patent applications among top 20 origins in 2023 — fifth consecutive year of double-digit growth |
| Resident filings | Resident filings accounted for over 55% of total submissions in 2023 — a first for India |
| 5-year growth | IP filings increased 44% overall from 2020-21 to 2024-25 (from 4,77,533 to 6,89,991) |
| Patent growth | Patent filings by Indian residents increased nearly 300% over the last decade |
Patent Filing by Sector
| Sector | Trend |
|---|---|
| Pharmaceuticals | India among top filers globally — generic drug innovations |
| IT and software | Growing patent filings; India is a major hub for software patents by MNCs |
| Biotechnology | Increasing filings linked to COVID-19 diagnostics and vaccines |
| Mechanical engineering | Automotive and manufacturing innovation driving filings |
| Defence | DRDO is among the top patent filers among public sector entities |
For Prelims: India became the 6th largest patent filer globally in 2023, with resident filings exceeding non-resident filings for the first time. India recorded the fastest growth in patent applications among the top 20 patent-filing countries.
Technology Transfer and Innovation Ecosystem
Key Innovation Programmes
| Programme | Detail |
|---|---|
| Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) | NITI Aayog's flagship innovation programme; AIM 2.0 approved with Rs 2,750 crore budget |
| Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) | 10,000 ATLs established in schools across 722 districts, mentoring over 1.1 crore students; over 16 lakh innovation projects created; government plans 50,000 new ATLs in next 5 years |
| Atal Incubation Centres (AICs) | 72 incubation centres; over 3,500 startups incubated; 32,000+ jobs generated |
| Startup India | Launched January 2016 — over 1,40,000 recognised startups; India has the world's 3rd largest startup ecosystem |
| iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) | Defence innovation fund — engaging startups for defence technology solutions |
| Technology Development Board (TDB) | Under DST — provides equity and loans for commercialisation of indigenous technology |
Global Innovation Index (GII) Rankings
| Year | India's Rank | Key Achievement |
|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 81st | Starting point of India's GII improvement journey |
| 2020 | 48th | Entered top 50 for the first time |
| 2023 | 40th | Consistent climb driven by innovation outputs |
| 2024 | 39th | 1st among lower-middle-income economies |
| 2025 | 38th | 15th consecutive year as an "innovation overperformer" |
For Mains: India's rise from 81st to 38th in the Global Innovation Index over a decade is a significant achievement. However, this improvement is driven largely by innovation outputs (scientific publications, patents, IT services exports) rather than innovation inputs (R&D spending, research infrastructure). Sustained improvement requires addressing the input side — which is what ANRF aims to do.
Science and Technology Clusters
India has four science and technology clusters in the global top 100 (GII 2025):
| Cluster | Global Rank |
|---|---|
| Bengaluru | 21st |
| Delhi | 26th |
| Mumbai | 46th |
| Chennai | 84th |
Challenges in India's Research Ecosystem
| Challenge | Detail |
|---|---|
| Low R&D spending | 0.64% of GDP — less than half the global average of approximately 1.8% |
| Brain drain | India loses thousands of researchers to developed countries annually — particularly to the US, UK, and Europe |
| Industry-academia disconnect | Limited collaboration between universities and industry for applied research |
| Bureaucratic processes | Research funding disbursement often delayed; procedural requirements burden researchers |
| Infrastructure gaps | State universities (which house 90% of students) have minimal research infrastructure |
| Publication pressure | "Publish or perish" culture prioritises quantity over quality; predatory journal problem |
| IP commercialisation | Only 5-10% of patents generated by public institutions are commercialised |
| Gender gap | Women constitute only approximately 16% of the research workforce |
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
Anusandhan National Research Foundation — ₹50,000 Crore to Transform India's R&D 2023–2028
The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) was established by the ANRF Act 2023, replacing the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB). With a ₹50,000 crore budget for 5 years (2023–2028) — 70% from private/industry sources — the ANRF is designed to stimulate R&D investment across academia, industry, and government. ANRF absorbed SERB's existing grants and expanded scope to include industry-oriented research, translational research, and mission-mode national challenges.
India's GERD (Gross Expenditure on R&D) remains at ~0.64% of GDP — far below China (2.4%), USA (3.5%), and Israel (5.4%). India's annual R&D spending reached ~$20 billion in 2025, but per-researcher investment remains low compared to peer economies. The Ministry of Science and Technology received ₹16,628 crore in 2024–25 (DST ₹8,029 crore + DSIR/CSIR ₹6,323 crore + DBT ₹2,276 crore) — a 31% increase over the previous year's revised estimates, reflecting political commitment to science-driven growth.
UPSC angle: ANRF (ANRF Act 2023, ₹50,000 crore, replaces SERB), GERD 0.64% vs China 2.4%/USA 3.5%, Ministry of Science and Technology ₹16,628 crore allocation (FY25, 31% increase), and India's R&D underfunding as systemic challenge are Prelims and Mains GS-3 content.
India's Global Innovation Index — Rank 38 in 2025 and Research Ecosystem Progress
India ranked 38th in the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2025 (WIPO), up from 81st in 2015 — a 43-position improvement over a decade. India contributes 3.5% of global research output (measured by peer-reviewed publications), anchored by IISc, IITs, CSIR labs, TIFR, and ISRO. IISc Bengaluru is ranked 1st in India and among the top 50 globally in research impact. India produces 15,000+ PhDs annually, second only to China and the USA among major S&T nations.
The NIRF (National Institutional Ranking Framework) 2025 placed IISc Bengaluru first, IIT Madras second, IIT Delhi third, IIT Bombay fourth, and IIT Kharagpur fifth among research institutions. India's Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (National Science Award) — instituted January 2024 — awarded its first awardees on 22 August 2024 (National Space Day). The awards replaced the earlier Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize and Padma-based science honours with a single national framework: Vigyan Ratna (lifetime achievement), Vigyan Shri (distinguished contribution), Vigyan Yuva-Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (young scientist), and Vigyan Team.
UPSC angle: India GII rank 38 (2025), GII 81 in 2015 (43-position rise), IISc rank 1 in NIRF 2025, Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (instituted January 2024, first awarded August 2024), and India's R&D publication output are Prelims and Mains GS-3 content.
CSIR and DBT — Key Institutional Milestones 2024–2025
CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research) operates 39 research laboratories and 39 outreach centres across India, with a mandate spanning pharmaceuticals (CSIR-CDRI Lucknow), aerospace materials (CSIR-NAL Bengaluru), oceanography (CSIR-NIO Goa), and chemicals. CSIR's 80th anniversary in 2022 was marked by its CSIR 80 campaign to translate 80 technologies into commercial products. Notable 2024–2025 outputs include CSIR-IMTECH (Institute of Microbial Technology) contributions to COVID vaccine research, CSIR-CECRI lithium-ion battery materials, and CSIR-CMERI's hydrogen generation systems.
DBT (Department of Biotechnology) advanced its BioE3 Policy (August 2024) — positioning India as a global bioeconomy leader across 6 verticals: precision biomanufacturing, climate resilience, healthcare, food security, bio-based chemicals, and marine bioeconomy. India's bioeconomy reached $150 billion in FY 2024–25 (Economic Survey). BIRAC (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council) under DBT supported 600+ biotech startups. ICAR's achievement of releasing BIRSA 101 (CRISPR gene-edited rice, November 2025) is a landmark in agricultural biotechnology. ICMR led India's pharmacovigilance and genome-India (83 populations, 10,000 genomes) programmes in 2024–2025.
UPSC angle: CSIR (39 labs, 39 outreach centres), DBT BioE3 Policy (August 2024, 6 verticals), India bioeconomy $150 billion FY25, BIRAC (600+ startups), BIRSA 101 CRISPR rice, and GenomeIndia programme (83 populations) are Prelims and Mains GS-3 content.
Key Terms for UPSC
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| GERD | Gross Expenditure on Research and Development — total national spending on R&D as percentage of GDP |
| ANRF | Anusandhan National Research Foundation — India's apex research funding body (replacing SERB), with Rs 50,000 crore budget |
| CSIR | Council of Scientific and Industrial Research — India's largest public sector R&D organisation with 38 national laboratories |
| ICMR | Indian Council of Medical Research — apex body for biomedical research in India, established 1911 |
| ICAR | Indian Council of Agricultural Research — coordinates agricultural research, education, and extension through 113 institutes and 731 KVKs |
| DAE | Department of Atomic Energy — oversees India's three-stage nuclear programme; reports directly to PM |
| DRDO | Defence Research and Development Organisation — 52 labs focused on defence technology development |
| GII | Global Innovation Index — WIPO annual ranking; India ranked 38th in 2025 |
| AIM | Atal Innovation Mission — NITI Aayog's flagship innovation programme including ATLs and AICs |
| BIRAC | Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council — DBT's industry interface for biotech innovation |
Exam Strategy
Prelims Focus: ANRF establishment and budget, CSIR lab count, ICMR founding year, ICAR and KVK numbers, India's GII rank, patent filing statistics, India's R&D spending as % of GDP, ISRO key missions, DAE three-stage programme.
Mains Connections: Link low R&D spending to India's technology dependence (GS3). Connect ANRF to addressing the innovation input gap. Relate patent filing trends to India's industrial competitiveness. Discuss the challenge of translating research output into commercial products and economic growth.
Essay Potential: "Can India become a knowledge superpower without investing in research?" — examining the gap between India's ambitions (Viksit Bharat 2047) and its research spending reality.
