BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Political parties are the essential institutions of democracy — the chapter explicitly argues this. UPSC GS2 regularly asks about challenges facing Indian political parties, party reform proposals, the Election Commission's role in regulating parties, national vs. state party status, anti-defection law, and the money-muscle nexus in elections. The chapter's framework (why parties are necessary + their challenges + reform proposals) is a standard Mains answer template.
Contemporary hook: The 2024 general elections saw the BJP-led NDA win 293 seats (BJP alone: 240), while INDIA Alliance (opposition coalition) won 234 seats — a multi-party competitive result where the BJP lost its solo majority. The Supreme Court's February 15, 2024 judgment on electoral bonds (unanimously striking down the scheme as unconstitutional) is a watershed moment in party finance regulation. The merger of regional parties into national alliances, and the rise of "non-political" figures (businesspeople, celebrities) fielded by parties, reflects the chapter's concerns about party quality.
PART 1 — Quick Reference Tables
Why Political Parties Are Necessary
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
| Contest elections | Put forward candidates; fund campaigns; build electoral coalitions |
| Form government | Winners form government; leader becomes PM/CM; party controls executive |
| Make policies | Articulate programmes; implement through government when in power |
| Play opposition | Check government; present alternative policies; hold government accountable |
| Aggregate interests | Bring together diverse groups' interests into coherent policy programmes |
| Political mobilisation | Educate voters; mobilise participation; build civic culture |
| Create political leaders | Training ground for future ministers, MPs, leaders |
Party Systems Comparison
| System | Description | Merits | Demerits | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| One-party | Only one party allowed to govern; others banned | Stability; fast decisions | No accountability; no alternation of power; authoritarian | China (CCP), Cuba, North Korea |
| Two-party | Two major parties dominate; others marginal | Clear choice; stable governments | Ignores minority voices; forces oversimplification | USA (Democrats/Republicans), UK (Cons/Labour historically) |
| Multi-party | Multiple parties; often coalition governments | Reflects diversity; more voices | Instability; coalition management; horse-trading | India, Germany, Israel, most European democracies |
National Parties in India (as of 2025)
| Party | Full Name | Founded | Ideology | Electoral Symbol |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BJP | Bharatiya Janata Party | 1980 | Hindu nationalism, right-leaning | Lotus |
| INC | Indian National Congress | 1885 | Secularism, centre-left | Hand |
| AAP | Aam Aadmi Party | 2012 | Anti-corruption; governance reform | Broom |
| BSP | Bahujan Samaj Party | 1984 | Dalit/Bahujan welfare | Elephant |
| CPI(M) | Communist Party of India (Marxist) | 1964 | Marxism-Leninism | Hammer, Sickle, Star |
| NPP | National People's Party | 2013 | Regional (Northeast); tribal welfare | Book |
Note: ECI revoked national party status of CPI, NCP, and AITC in April 2023 for failing to meet vote-share thresholds. Current 6 national parties are listed above. ECI grants national party status if a party wins at least 2% of total Lok Sabha seats from at least 3 states, or gets at least 6% of valid votes in 4+ states + wins 4 Lok Sabha seats.
Challenges Facing Political Parties
| Challenge | Description | India's Context |
|---|---|---|
| Internal democracy deficit | Leaders appointed rather than elected; high command culture | Congress "Gandhi family"; BJP RSS influence; dynasty politics |
| Dynastic politics | Leadership passes from parent to child | Nehru-Gandhi family in Congress; Yadav families in SP and RJD; regional dynasties |
| Money and muscle | Candidates with criminal records fielded; money used to buy votes | ADR data: 46% of 2024 Lok Sabha MPs face criminal cases |
| Ideology erosion | Opportunistic alliance-making; parties switch allegiances for power | In 2023–24, multiple parties shifted sides after elections |
| Centralisation | Central leadership controls state units; local autonomy limited | "High command" culture in most national parties |
PART 2 — Detailed Notes
What Are Political Parties?
A political party is:
- An organised group of people who share political views
- Seeks to capture political power through elections
- Aims to implement policies when in power
- Must contest elections — this distinguishes parties from pressure groups (which influence parties but don't contest elections)
The NCERT chapter's definition: "A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promoting the collective good."
Functions of Political Parties
The chapter identifies several functions:
- Contesting elections: Parties select candidates; run campaigns; mobilise voters
- Government formation: Winners form government; losing parties form opposition
- Policy making: Parties articulate policies based on their ideology and voter interests
- Opposition: Holding the government accountable through criticism and questioning
- Aggregating interests: Bringing different groups' interests into coherent national policy positions
- Political education: Informing citizens about issues; creating political awareness
Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule): Added to the Constitution by the 52nd Amendment (1985), this law prohibits elected members of Parliament and state legislatures from switching parties after election, unless their original party merges with another party (merger requires at least 2/3 of the party's members). The Speaker/Chairman decides defection cases — this has been criticised as the "Speaker's discretion problem" since Speakers often belong to the ruling party.
India's Multi-Party System
India has a multi-party system because:
- India's diversity (linguistic, religious, caste, regional) creates diverse political identities
- First-past-the-post electoral system at national level but with regional variations
- Regional parties represent state-specific interests
- Caste and community-based parties represent specific social groups
India has had coalition governments at the centre from 1989 (except 2014–19 when BJP won majority alone and 2019–24 again). Coalition politics requires:
- Negotiating common minimum programme
- Sharing cabinet portfolios
- Managing internal disagreements
- Sometimes leading to instability (11th and 12th Lok Sabhas were short-lived)
How Parties Influence Voters in India
Methods used by parties to win elections:
- Issue-based campaigning: Development, governance quality, price rise, employment
- Identity appeals: Caste/community mobilisation; religious appeals
- Welfare schemes: Announcing schemes before elections; distributing benefits
- Freebies/Revdi culture: Promising free electricity, laptops, cycles, cash transfers — the "revdi" controversy
- Social media: Micro-targeted messaging; WhatsApp groups; social media armies
- Money: Distributing cash, alcohol, gifts near polling day
Party Finance and Electoral Bonds
Electoral Bonds — A major UPSC topic (2024): Electoral bonds were introduced in 2018 as a mechanism for anonymous corporate and individual donations to political parties. Bonds were purchased from State Bank of India and donated to parties; parties could redeem them. The scheme was challenged as it:
- Did not require disclosure of donor identity to public
- Created information asymmetry where the government/ruling party could know donor identity (via SBI records) but public couldn't
In February 2024, the Supreme Court unanimously struck down the Electoral Bonds Scheme as unconstitutional (violating voters' right to know about party funding under Article 19(1)(a)). The SBI was ordered to disclose all bond data.
The case raised fundamental questions about corporate-political nexus, quid pro quo concerns, and transparency in party finance.
PART 3 — Frameworks & Analysis
Party Reform: What the NCERT Proposes
The chapter suggests several reforms:
- Constitutional amendment to mandate internal elections: Parties should be required to hold internal democratic elections for party positions
- Financial transparency: Parties should be required to disclose their income and expenditure
- Women's representation: At least 1/3 of party offices reserved for women
- Reduce money power: Stricter campaign finance limits; state funding of elections
- Control criminal candidates: Parties should not field candidates with criminal records
Election Commission of India (ECI) reforms:
- ECI has limited powers over party registration and recognition
- Proposed giving ECI power to deregister parties that don't hold internal elections
- ECI guidelines on model code of conduct, candidate disclosure forms (criminal and financial background) have partially improved transparency
Ideal vs Real: The Party System Gap
| Ideal Party | Indian Reality |
|---|---|
| Internally democratic | High command culture; dynasties |
| Transparent finances | Electoral bonds; crony capitalism |
| Ideology-driven | Opportunistic alliances; ideology-switching |
| Merit-based candidate selection | Winnability + caste equation + money |
| Gender-inclusive | ~10–15% women candidates |
The gap between ideal and real is a standard Mains answer structure for "Challenges to democracy" questions.
Exam Strategy
Prelims fact traps:
- Anti-Defection Law: 10th Schedule (not 9th); added by 52nd Amendment (1985)
- Merger threshold for anti-defection exemption: 2/3 of original party's members (not simple majority)
- Electoral Bonds struck down: February 2024 (Supreme Court, Constitution Bench)
- INC founded: 1885 (not 1906 or 1920)
- BSP founded by: Kanshi Ram in 1984 (not Mayawati; Mayawati was prominent leader)
Mains question patterns:
- "India's political parties face a crisis of internal democracy, financial transparency, and ideological coherence. Suggest a reform agenda." (GS2)
- "Political parties are essential to democracy but also its greatest challenge." Examine in the Indian context. (GS2)
- "The Supreme Court's judgment striking down electoral bonds marks a watershed in party finance regulation." Discuss the implications. (GS2)
Practice Questions
- Critically examine the challenges facing political parties in India and suggest reforms. (UPSC Mains GS2, standard question)
- Discuss the role of the Election Commission in regulating political parties. What more can be done? (GS2)
- "The anti-defection law has both strengthened and distorted India's parliamentary democracy." Evaluate. (GS2)
- Analyse the impact of dynastic politics on the quality of Indian democracy. (GS2)
