BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: The Mauryas and Ashoka sit at the centre of GS1 ancient history and art: the Kalinga war, Dhamma, the rock and pillar edicts, the Arthashastra, Mauryan administration, and the Ashokan symbols India adopted (the wheel on the flag, the Sarnath Lion Capital in the State Emblem). Ashoka's turn from conquest to Dhamma is also a stock GS4 example. This page follows the old NCERT edition, where this is Chapter 8; in the rationalised 2023-24 edition it is Chapter 7, "From a Kingdom to an Empire", which adds that Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka.
Contemporary hook: On 25 July 2026 the World Heritage Committee, at its 48th session in Busan, inscribed the "Ancient Buddhist Site of Sarnath" on the UNESCO World Heritage List, India's 45th World Heritage property. Its components include the archaeological remains where the Ashokan pillar stands (PIB, 25-Jul-2026). The wheel at the centre of India's flag comes from the same pillar: the Constituent Assembly's resolution of 22 July 1947 says its design "shall be that of the Wheel (Chakra) which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka".
🧠 First Principles — Read This First
An empire is a kingdom so large that it holds many regions and peoples under one ruler, so it needs more officials, more taxes and a bigger army than an ordinary kingdom. NCERT uses the Mauryas to show what that took. Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire (c. 321 BCE), supported by Chanakya or Kautilya, whose ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. Its capital was Pataliputra; Taxila and Ujjain were important provincial centres.
His grandson Ashoka (inscriptions c. 272/268–231 BCE) is the ruler we know best, because he spoke to his subjects directly through inscriptions on rocks and pillars, mostly in the Prakrit language and the Brahmi script. Eight years after his coronation he conquered Kalinga (coastal Odisha). His own Rock Edict XIII counts 150,000 people deported and 100,000 killed, with many times that number dying afterwards. Horrified, he gave up war.
What he followed instead he called Dhamma, the Prakrit form of dharma: not a new religion but a code of conduct. His inscriptions ask people to be gentle with slaves and servants, respect their elders, treat all creatures with compassion, give gifts to brahmins and monks, and respect other people's religions. Officials called dhamma mahamattas taught it, and messengers carried it abroad.
Why UPSC cares: Kalinga, Dhamma, the edicts and the Mauryan sources (Megasthenes, the Arthashastra) recur in GS1, and two Ashokan objects, the Sarnath capital and its wheel, are part of India's State Emblem and flag.
PART 1 — Quick Reference
Mauryan Empire — Key Rulers
| Ruler | Dates | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya | founded the empire c. 321 BCE | Supported by Chanakya/Kautilya; Megasthenes, sent by the Greek ruler of West Asia, Seleucus Nicator, lived at his court; Jain tradition says he became a Jain ascetic |
| Bindusara | between Chandragupta and Ashoka | Chandragupta's son and Ashoka's father |
| Ashoka | inscriptions c. 272/268–231 BCE | Conquered Kalinga eight years after his coronation (Rock Edict XIII); then gave up war and taught Dhamma |
Dates follow NCERT Class 12 (Themes in Indian History I, ch. 2). Historians' exact years for Ashoka differ by a few years, which is why NCERT gives "272/268"; E. Hultzsch's 1925 edition of the inscriptions, for example, places the Kalinga war in 256 BCE.
Ashoka's Edicts — Types and Distribution
| Type | Number | Where found | Language and script |
|---|---|---|---|
| Major Rock Edicts | 14 | Rock faces across the empire, e.g. Girnar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra, Dhauli, Jaugada | Mostly Prakrit in Brahmi; Prakrit in Kharosthi in the north-west; Aramaic and Greek in the far north-west |
| Minor Rock Edicts | shorter | Widely spread, many in the south (e.g. Maski, Brahmagiri) | Prakrit in Brahmi |
| Pillar Edicts | 7 | Edicts I–VI on six pillars: Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva, Allahabad-Kosam. Edict VII only on Delhi-Topra | Prakrit in Brahmi |
| Minor Pillar Inscriptions | shorter | Buddhist sites, e.g. Lumbini (Rummindei), Nigali Sagar, Sarnath, Sanchi | Prakrit in Brahmi |
Sources: NCERT Class 12, ch. 2 ("Languages and scripts", Map 2); E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum vol. I, new edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), table of contents.
Key Ashoka Edicts — Content
| Edict | Where | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| Rock Edict XIII | Major rock-edict sites, but not Dhauli or Jaugada in Kalinga itself, where two Separate Kalinga Edicts replace edicts XI–XIII | The Kalinga war: 150,000 deported, 100,000 killed, "many times as many" died; Ashoka's remorse; conquest by Dhamma |
| Rock Edict XII | Major rock-edict sites (not Dhauli or Jaugada) | Respect for all sects; do not praise one's own sect while criticising another's |
| Rock Edict II | Major rock-edict sites | Medical treatment for humans and animals |
| Rock Edict V | Major rock-edict sites | Appointment of dhamma mahamattas |
| Pillar Edict VII | Delhi-Topra only | Reviews his Dhamma measures; written "anointed twenty-seven years" |
| Lumbini (Rummindei) pillar inscription | Lumbini, Nepal | Records his visit because the Buddha was born there; the village was made "free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share" |
| Sarnath Lion Capital | Sarnath pillar | Four lions back to back; the State Emblem is adapted from it |
Source: Hultzsch (1925): translations of Rock Edict XIII and the Rummindei and Delhi-Topra inscriptions, and his note that "the two separate edicts were substituted at Dhauli and Jaugada for the rock-edicts XI to XIII".
PART 2 — Concepts & Narrative
Chandragupta Maurya — Founder of the Empire
Who was Chandragupta Maurya?
NCERT says only that Chandragupta founded the empire more than 2,300 years ago, supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. NCERT Class 12 dates the founding to c. 321 BCE and adds that he extended control as far north-west as Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Greek writers call him Sandrocottus.
Relations with the Greeks:
- According to the Greek geographer Strabo, Seleucus Nicator (who ruled West Asia after Alexander) ceded to Chandragupta a tract of land west of the Indus, entered into a marriage alliance with him, and received 500 elephants in exchange.
- Seleucus sent Megasthenes as his ambassador to Chandragupta's court at Pataliputra (NCERT). A later envoy, Deimachus, went to the court of Chandragupta's son, whom the Greeks call Amitrochates (Bindusara).
Later life (Jain tradition): Jain tradition holds that, influenced by the monk Bhadrabahu, Chandragupta handed the throne to his son Bindusara and settled at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka; the district administration associates the Jain temples of Chandragiri hill there with him.
Sources: NCERT Class 6 and Class 12 (ch. 2); Hultzsch (1925), introduction, quoting Strabo; Hassan district administration, Government of Karnataka, "Shravanabelgola" (hassan.nic.in).
Kautilya's Arthashastra
Arthashastra: NCERT Class 6 says many of Chanakya's ideas "were written down in a book called the Arthashastra". NCERT Class 12 is more careful: it is a text "parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the minister of Chandragupta". So use it as a source on Mauryan-era ideas of government, while remembering that not all of it need date from Chandragupta's time.
What it covers: administration and officials, taxation and the treasury, law and punishments, the army, spies, and relations with other kings. NCERT cites it on resources: the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones, which may have been collected as tribute.
Saptanga (seven limbs of the state): swami (ruler), amatya (minister), janapada (territory and people), durga (fort), kosha (treasury), danda (army) and mitra (ally). This is a theory of the state, the Arthashastra's best-known idea in GS1 and GS2 answers.
Rediscovery: the text was lost to scholarship until R. Shamasastry, of the Oriental Library at Mysore (today's Oriental Research Institute), identified a manuscript in 1905; he published the Sanskrit text in 1909.
The Mauryan Administration
From NCERT and fragments of Megasthenes' account (his book survives only in passages quoted by later writers, NCERT Class 12):
- The area around Pataliputra was under the emperor's direct control. Officials collected taxes and punished those who disobeyed the king's orders; messengers went to and fro and spies kept watch.
- Provinces were ruled from provincial capitals such as Taxila (gateway to the north-west and Central Asia) and Ujjain (on the route from north to south India); royal princes were often sent as governors, and local customs were probably followed.
- Beyond these, the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers important for transport and collected whatever resources they could as tax and tribute. Forest people were largely independent but may have had to supply elephants, timber, honey and wax.
- Pataliputra, in Megasthenes' description quoted by NCERT, was surrounded by a massive wall with 570 towers and 64 gates.
Ashoka — The Turning Point
The Kalinga war (about 260 BCE): Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Odisha. NCERT quotes Ashoka's own account (Rock Edict XIII):
"Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. … I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force."
Hultzsch's translation gives the same numbers: 150,000 deported, 100,000 slain, "and many times as many those who died". The edict gives no cause for the later deaths. The year is arithmetic, not a recorded date: eight years after a coronation in about 268 BCE, on NCERT Class 12's dating.
What changed: Ashoka says he now wanted "conquest by morality" (dhamma-vijaya) in place of conquest by arms, and asked that his sons and grandsons not think of war. NCERT adds that he was inspired by the teachings of the Buddha.
Ashoka's Dhamma — What Was It?
Dhamma is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit dharma. NCERT stresses that it "did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice". Ashoka saw himself as a father instructing his children, and aimed at problems he saw around him: quarrels between followers of different religions, animal sacrifice, ill-treatment of slaves and servants, and quarrels in families and among neighbours.
What the inscriptions ask for, and what he did:
- Gentleness and respect: being gentle with slaves and servants, respecting elders, treating all creatures with compassion, giving gifts to brahmins and monks (NCERT's quotation of his message).
- Respect for all sects: Rock Edict XII warns that whoever praises his own sect while blaming others "rather injures his own sect very severely" (Hultzsch). Caves in the Barabar hills were dedicated to the Ajivikas.
- Less killing: Rock Edict I says the royal kitchen, where many hundred thousands of animals were once killed daily, now killed only two peacocks and one deer, "and even this deer not regularly".
- Welfare: roads, wells, rest houses, and medical treatment for both human beings and animals (NCERT; Rock Edict II).
- Dhamma mahamattas: officials who went from place to place teaching dhamma (NCERT; Rock Edict V).
- Tours of morality (dhamma-yatra): Rock Edict VIII says that after visiting Sambodhi (Bodh Gaya) he replaced pleasure tours with tours for meeting brahmanas and shramanas, the aged and the people of the country.
- Messengers abroad: to Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka (NCERT); the 2023-24 edition names his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra as those sent to Sri Lanka.
Was Dhamma just Buddhism? Historians debate it. NCERT says Ashoka was inspired by the Buddha's teachings, yet presents Dhamma as a code of conduct for people of every sect, since it involved no worship of a god and no sacrifice.
The Edicts — Direct Voice of History
NCERT calls Ashoka "the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions". The edicts speak in his own voice, as Devanampiya Piyadassi (NCERT Class 12 glosses Piyadassi as "pleasant to behold"), and he told his officials to read them aloud to those who could not read. Jawaharlal Nehru, quoted by NCERT, wrote: "His edicts (instructions) still speak to us in a language we can understand and we can still learn much from them."
Lumbini (Rummindei) pillar: UNESCO records that the Buddha's birth at Lumbini is "testified by the inscription on the pillar erected by the Mauryan Emperor Asoka in 249 BC". The inscription says Ashoka came there himself, and that he made the village "free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share (of the produce)" (Hultzsch). The pillar was discovered in 1896 (UNESCO).
Decipherment: NCERT Class 12 records that James Prinsep "was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838", which made the edicts readable again.
Ashoka's Legacy
UPSC connections — Ashoka's legacy:
- The national flag: the Constituent Assembly's resolution of 22 July 1947 says the wheel's design "shall be that of the Wheel (Chakra) which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka". In the same debate S. Radhakrishnan said: "The Asoka's wheel represents to us the wheel of the Law, the wheel Dharma." The resolution itself gives no meaning for the spokes; readings of them as the hours of the day or as virtues are popular, not official.
- The State Emblem: an adaptation of the Sarnath Lion Capital (see 8b below).
- Buddhism's spread: through the missions to Sri Lanka and Ashoka's patronage of Buddhist sites. UNESCO notes that Sri Lankan chronicles identify Sanchi as the place where Mahinda stopped before his mission to Sri Lanka.
- Buddhist sites: UNESCO attributes the beginning of Sanchi as a sacred centre to Ashoka (see 8a below).
PART 3 — UPSC Integration
Why the Mauryan Empire Declined
NCERT says only that the Mauryan empire collapsed about 2,200 years ago and that new kingdoms, such as those of the Indo-Greeks, rose in its place. Historians still debate why, so a Mains answer should present the causes as explanations offered, not as settled fact.
[Additional] 8a. Sanchi — Ashoka's Stupa and Its Gateways
NCERT mentions Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism but not Sanchi, the best-preserved early Buddhist site and a regular subject of GS1 art-and-culture questions. UNESCO calls it "the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence".
Key Terms — Sanchi:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi | UNESCO World Heritage property no. 524, inscribed 1989, criteria (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi); Madhya Pradesh, about 40 km from Bhopal and 10 km from Vidisha |
| Stupa | Sanskrit for "a heap": a mound (anda) over relics. Above the anda is the harmika, a balcony-like structure; from it rises a mast, the yashti, often topped by a chhatri (umbrella); a railing separates the sacred space (NCERT Class 12, ch. 4) |
| Torana | Gateway. The Great Stupa has four, carved with Jataka stories and scenes of Buddhist worship |
| Aniconism | Early sculptors often did not show the Buddha in human form but indicated his presence through symbols (below) |
[Additional] Sanchi — how it was built, what the carvings mean, how it survived (GS1 — Art & Culture):
Building phases of the Great Stupa (Stupa 1), from UNESCO's statement:
| Phase | What was added |
|---|---|
| Ashoka (3rd century BCE) | A brick stupa, contemporary with his pillar at the site; UNESCO attributes the start of Sanchi as a sacred centre to Ashoka |
| Sungas (184–72 BCE) | Stupa enlarged and cased in stone; paths, staircases with balustrades, harmika, yashti, chhatra and four toranas |
| Satavahanas (1st century CE) | The toranas ornamented |
| Guptas (5th century CE) | Four shrines at the cardinal entrances |
Donors are named in inscriptions on the railings and pillars: some were kings such as the Satavahanas, others were guilds, such as the ivory workers who financed part of one gateway (NCERT Class 12). The relics of the Buddha's chief disciples Sariputra and Maudgalyayana (Mahamoggallana) are enshrined at Sanchi and "continue to be revered to the present day" (UNESCO).
Reading the symbols (NCERT Class 12, ch. 4):
| Symbol | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Empty seat | The meditation of the Buddha |
| Stupa | The mahaparinibbana |
| Wheel | The first sermon, delivered at Sarnath |
| Tree | Not just a tree, but an event in the Buddha's life |
NCERT Class 12 also shows a Buddha image in human form from Mathura, c. 1st century CE, and discusses images from Taxila and Peshawar (Gandhara) that resembled Greek statues: human images had appeared by the Kushana period.
How Sanchi survived (NCERT Class 12): when Sanchi was "discovered" in 1818, three of its four gateways were still standing. Proposals to take a gateway to Paris or London came to nothing. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, paid for its preservation, and John Marshall dedicated his volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan, who also funded the site museum.
Prelims traps: the toranas were ornamented under the Satavahanas, not built by Ashoka (his stupa was brick); the empty seat stands for the Buddha's meditation; Sanchi was inscribed in 1989, and the Ancient Buddhist Site of Sarnath in July 2026.
[Additional] 8b. Ashoka's Lion Capital and the State Emblem
Key Terms — Lion Capital and State Emblem:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Sarnath Lion Capital | Found in the ASI's excavations at Sarnath of 1904–06 (PIB, 25-Jul-2026). Four lions mounted back to back on a circular abacus; the abacus frieze carries an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by Dharma Chakras, and rests on a bell-shaped lotus (State Emblem Act, 2005, Schedule) |
| Sarnath Museum | Where the capital is preserved (State Emblem Act, 2005). PIB describes it as India's earliest site museum, established in 1904 |
| Rampurva Bull | A 3rd-century BCE sandstone capital of an Ashokan pillar from Rampurva, Bihar, at Rashtrapati Bhavan since 1948, after it returned from an exhibition of Indian art at Burlington House, London (Rashtrapati Bhavan) |
[Additional] The State Emblem — what was kept and what was changed (GS1 Art & Culture / GS2 Polity):
The State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005 describes the emblem as "an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka which is preserved in the Sarnath Museum".
| Feature | Original capital | State Emblem |
|---|---|---|
| Lions | Four, back to back | Shown in profile: three lions visible |
| Abacus | Elephant, galloping horse, bull and lion, separated by Dharma Chakras | A Dharma Chakra in the centre, a bull on the right, a galloping horse on the left, outlines of Dharma Chakras at the extreme right and left |
| Lotus | The abacus rests on a bell-shaped lotus | Lotus omitted |
| Motto | None | "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari below the capital |
The words of the motto come from the Mundaka Upanishad (III.1.6), which begins satyameva jayate nānṛtaṃ, translated "Truth alone wins, not falsehood" (Mundaka Upanishad with Shankara's commentary, wisdomlib.org).
Prelims traps: the emblem shows three lions because it is a profile of a four-lion capital; the lotus is omitted; the wheel on the national flag reproduces the Dharma Chakra on the capital's abacus (Constituent Assembly, 22 July 1947); the capital is at the Sarnath Museum; the Rampurva bull is at Rashtrapati Bhavan.
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- State Emblem: a profile of the Sarnath Lion Capital (three of four lions visible, lotus omitted, "Satyameva Jayate" added in Devanagari), not anything from Sanchi.
- Flag wheel: its design is the wheel on the abacus of the Sarnath capital (Constituent Assembly resolution, 22 July 1947).
- Kalinga = coastal Odisha; conquered eight years after Ashoka's coronation. Rock Edict XIII, which describes it, is absent at Dhauli and Jaugada in Kalinga itself.
- Pillar Edict VII is found only on the Delhi-Topra pillar.
- Megasthenes was at Chandragupta's court, sent by Seleucus Nicator, not at Ashoka's.
- Lumbini (Nepal): the pillar inscription says "hida Budhe jate Sakyamuni", here the Buddha Sakyamuni was born.
- Empty seat in early Buddhist sculpture = the Buddha's meditation; the wheel = the first sermon.
- Arthashastra: manuscript identified by R. Shamasastry at Mysore in 1905; NCERT Class 12 says only parts were "probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya".
- Prinsep deciphered Ashokan Brahmi in 1838 (NCERT Class 12).
Mains frameworks:
- On Ashoka's Dhamma: context (Kalinga) → content (conduct, tolerance, welfare, officials) → method (inscriptions, mahamattas, messengers) → debate (Buddhist or universal?) → legacy (flag, emblem, spread of Buddhism).
- On Kautilya and Ashoka: the Arthashastra's statecraft (spies, treasury, force) beside Ashoka's rule by persuasion; both relied on officials and messengers, so the contrast is one of means and message, not of an absent state.
Practice Questions
Practice (UPSC-pattern, not past papers). Real UPSC questions on this chapter are listed in the PYQ box above.
Prelims:
India's State Emblem is adapted from an Ashokan capital found at:
(a) Sarnath
(b) Sanchi
(c) Rampurva
(d) Lauriya-NandangarhAshoka's Rock Edict XIII is best known for:
(a) His visit to Lumbini
(b) His account of the Kalinga war and his remorse
(c) Reducing the animals killed in the royal kitchen
(d) Instructions on medical treatment for animalsA manuscript of the Arthashastra was identified in 1905 by:
(a) R. Shamasastry
(b) Alexander Cunningham
(c) James Prinsep
(d) John MarshallIn early Buddhist sculpture, an empty seat indicates:
(a) The Buddha's death (mahaparinibbana)
(b) The Buddha's meditation
(c) The first sermon at Sarnath
(d) The Buddha's birth at Lumbini
Mains:
"Ashoka's Dhamma was a policy of governance more than a religious mission." Examine, using the evidence of his inscriptions. (GS1, 15 marks)
How far can the Arthashastra and Megasthenes' account be relied on to reconstruct Mauryan administration? (GS1, 10 marks)
📦 Revision Capsule
Hard Facts
- Mauryan empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya, c. 321 BCE, with Chanakya/Kautilya; capital Pataliputra; Taxila and Ujjain provincial capitals
- Ashoka: inscriptions c. 272/268–231 BCE; Kalinga conquered 8 years after coronation (Rock Edict XIII: 150,000 deported, 100,000 killed)
- Inscriptions: mostly Prakrit in Brahmi; Kharosthi, Aramaic and Greek in the north-west; 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts (VII only at Delhi-Topra)
- Dhamma spread by dhamma mahamattas, inscriptions, and messengers to Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka (Mahendra, Sanghmitra)
- Sanchi World Heritage 1989; Sarnath World Heritage 25-Jul-2026 (India's 45th)
Core Concepts
- Empire = many regions under one ruler, held by officials, taxes, tribute and an army
- Dhamma = a code of conduct, not a religion: no worship of a god, no sacrifice
- Inscriptions = Ashoka speaking directly to his subjects
Confused Pairs
- Chandragupta (founder; Megasthenes at his court) vs Ashoka (Kalinga, Dhamma)
- Tax (regular) vs tribute (collected as and when possible)
- Sarnath (Lion Capital, emblem, first sermon) vs Sanchi (Great Stupa, toranas)
- Empty seat (meditation) vs stupa (mahaparinibbana) vs wheel (first sermon)
PYQ Pattern
- Mains GS1 has asked about early Buddhist stupa art, and Prelims 2026 about the symbols of aniconic Buddhist sculpture (see the PYQ box). Mauryan administration and Dhamma are standard Mains themes.
Sources
Sources
- NCERT, Our Pasts – I (Class VI), ch. 8 "Ashoka, the Emperor Who Gave Up War" (2018-19 reprint), and the Rationalised 2023-24 edition, ch. 7 "From a Kingdom to an Empire": NCERT's book archives as captured by the Wayback Machine, 2019 copy and 2023-24 copy.
- NCERT, Themes in Indian History, Part I (Class XII), ch. 2 "Kings, Farmers and Towns" and ch. 4 "Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings", Reprint 2026-27: book archive.
- E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum vol. I, new edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925): archive.org.
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi; Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha.
- PIB (Ministry of Culture), "Ancient Buddhist Site of Sarnath Inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List", 25-Jul-2026: pib.gov.in.
- Constituent Assembly Debates, vol. IV, 22 July 1947: sansad.in.
- The State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005, Schedule: mha.gov.in.
- Rashtrapati Bhavan, Rampurva Bull; Hassan district, Government of Karnataka, Shravanabelgola; Mundaka Upanishad III.1.6 with Shankara's commentary, wisdomlib.org.
