BharatNotes Why this chapter matters for UPSC: Beyond the elected Panchayat, every village is served by appointed officials: the police and the revenue staff who keep land records. That machinery of the state on the ground (police station, Patwari, Tehsildar, Collector) underlies GS2 questions on governance and police reform and GS3 questions on land records and land reform. In the rationalised 2023-24 edition this is Chapter 5, "Rural Administration", with the same content.
Contemporary hook: On 1 July 2024 the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 replaced the Code of Criminal Procedure. The FIR that Mohan struggles to file in this chapter is now registered under Section 173 BNSS, which lets a complaint be made at any police station "irrespective of the area where the offence is committed" (the Zero FIR) or by electronic communication (PIB, CrPC-BNSS comparison, May 2024).
🧠 First Principles — Read This First
India has more than six lakh villages (NCERT). Looking after their water, electricity and roads, keeping land records and dealing with conflicts needs a large machinery of government. NCERT studies two parts of it through one story.
Mohan and Raghu. Raghu shifts the bund (the small boundary between their fields) and takes some of Mohan's land; when Mohan objects, Raghu and a helper beat him up. Raghu's uncle is the Sarpanch. Mohan goes, with neighbours who saw the attack, to the police station whose area covers his village. The Station House Officer (S.H.O.) at first refuses to record the complaint and registers it only when the neighbours insist.
Two officials could settle the underlying dispute and the crime. The police must enquire into, investigate and act on cases in the area of their station. The Patwari measures land and keeps its records; he could measure both fields against the village map and show whether the boundary had moved. Above them are the Tehsildar and the District Collector on the revenue side, and the Superintendent of Police on the police side. The chapter closes with a new law, the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, under which daughters as well as sons and their mothers can get an equal share of a Hindu family's land.
PART 1 — Quick Reference
Rural Administration: Who Does What (NCERT)
| Official | Work, as NCERT describes it | Level |
|---|---|---|
| Station House Officer (S.H.O.) | Person in charge of a police station; the station enquires into, investigates and acts on every case in its area | Police station area |
| Superintendent of Police | Supervises the police stations | District |
| Patwari (also Lekhpal, Kanungo, Karamchari or Village Officer, by state) | Measures land and keeps land records for a group of villages; organises collection of land revenue; reports the crops grown | Group of villages |
| Tehsildar (revenue officer) | Hears land disputes, supervises the Patwaris, ensures records are kept and land revenue collected; farmers get copies of records and students get caste certificates through this office | Tehsil or taluka |
| District Collector | Heads the revenue officers of the district | District |
Key Facts
| Item | Fact | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Villages in India | "More than six lakh" | NCERT |
| Police | A State subject: List II, Entry 2, "Police (including railway and village police)", subject to Entry 2A of List I | Constitution, Seventh Schedule |
| FIR | CrPC s.154 until 30 June 2024; BNSS s.173 from 1 July 2024 | PIB, May 2024 |
| Land record keeper | Patwari, with different names in different states | NCERT |
| Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act | 2005: equal share for daughters | NCERT |
PART 2 — Concepts & Narrative
The Police Station and Its Area
Every police station has an area that comes under its control. Everyone in that area can report thefts, accidents, injuries or fights to it, and its police must enquire, investigate and act. That is why Mohan says he can register his case only at the station whose area includes his village, not at the bigger station in town.
What the story shows. The S.H.O. "rudely brushed him aside" and would not write down a "minor" complaint until the neighbours who had witnessed the beating insisted. NCERT asks students to act out the scene and ask how the S.H.O. could have handled it differently: the duty to record a complaint is the point.
Today's law. BNSS s.173(1) says information about a cognizable offence may be given "irrespective of the area where the offence is committed", orally or by electronic communication; information given electronically is taken on record once the informant signs it within three days, and a copy is given free to the informant or victim (s.173(2)) (PIB comparison of CrPC and BNSS, May 2024).
Land Records and the Patwari
Patwari: the official who measures land and keeps the land records of a group of villages. Some states call this officer the Lekhpal, Kanungo, Karamchari or Village Officer.
- Measuring: in some places with a long chain. In the story, the Patwari would measure Mohan's and Raghu's fields and compare them with the map; if they did not match, the boundary had moved.
- Records: NCERT reproduces a page of the Khasra record of the village of Amrapura (owner, area, crops, irrigation, fallow land) beside a sketch map.
- Revenue and crops: the Patwari organises the collection of land revenue and tells the government which crops are grown, so the records must be kept up to date.
Why farmers need the record: to buy land, to get a bank loan (for example to dig a well) and to divide property among children. Farmers have a right to a copy and may pay a small fee, but it is not always easy to get. NCERT notes that some states were computerising records and keeping them at the Panchayat office.
The Tehsil and the Collector
States are divided into districts, and districts into sub-divisions for land matters, called the tehsil or taluka. At the head is the District Collector; under the Collector are revenue officers called Tehsildars. NCERT lists their work: they hear disputes, supervise the Patwaris, make sure records are kept and land revenue is collected, help farmers get copies of their records, and issue caste certificates to students. Land disputes are heard in the Tehsildar's office.
A New Law: Equal Shares for Daughters
Until recently, NCERT says, Hindu women in some states got no share of the family's agricultural land; after the father's death it was divided only among his sons. Under the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, "sons, daughters and their mothers in Hindu families can get an equal share in the land", and the same law applies to all states and union territories.
NCERT's example: Sudha, the married eldest daughter of a farming family, helps her mother after her father's death. Her mother asks the Patwari to enter her own name and all the children's names in the record, so Sudha knows she can depend on her share. The poem "A daughter's wish" (Anjali Monteiro, TISS) asks the same question: why should a daughter not expect a share of her father's home?
Other Public Services
NCERT ends with a survey: list the public services in your village or area (the fair-price or ration shop, milk society, bank, post office, anganwadi, school, health centre) and record how they work, what people need to use them, and what could improve. Its worked example is a ration shop that served two villages, had no kerosene and sold poor-quality rice.
[Additional] 6a. The Three New Criminal Codes (in force 1 July 2024)
Mohan's complaint, the police investigation and any trial that follows now run under new laws. Three codes passed by Parliament in December 2023 (assent 25 December 2023) replaced the colonial-era codes from 1 July 2024.
Key Terms: What Replaced What
| New code | Replaced | Last section (the repeal clause) |
|---|---|---|
| Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS), Act 45 of 2023: offences and punishments | Indian Penal Code, 1860 | s.358 |
| Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (BNSS): criminal procedure | Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 | s.531 |
| Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (BSA), Act 47 of 2023: evidence | Indian Evidence Act, 1872 | s.170 |
[Additional] What Changed for the Police Station and the Courts (GS2: Police, Criminal Justice)
BNSS: procedure
| Provision | What it says (Act text) |
|---|---|
| s.173: FIR | Information about a cognizable offence may be given "irrespective of the area where the offence is committed" (the Zero FIR), orally or by electronic communication; an electronic complaint is taken on record once the informant signs it within three days; a copy is given free to the informant or victim |
| s.105: search and seizure | Must be recorded "through any audio-video electronic means preferably mobile phone", and the recording sent to the Magistrate |
| s.176(3): forensics | For offences punishable with seven years or more, a forensic expert must visit the crime scene; each State applies this from a date it notifies within five years |
| s.187: custody | Police custody is still capped at 15 days in all, but may be taken in parts during the first 40 or 60 days of a 60- or 90-day detention period |
| s.163: prohibitory orders | The power of the District Magistrate and other Executive Magistrates to issue orders in "urgent cases of nuisance or apprehended danger" (formerly CrPC s.144) |
| s.356: trial in absentia | A proclaimed offender who absconds can be tried in absence, but the trial cannot begin until 90 days after charges are framed |
BNS: offences. Section 103(2) makes murder by a group of five or more on grounds such as race, caste, community, sex, language or personal belief (mob lynching) punishable with death or life imprisonment. Section 111 defines organised crime and s.113 a terrorist act. There is no offence named sedition; s.152 punishes acts endangering the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
BSA: evidence. Section 57 now says an electronic or digital record "produced from proper custody" is primary evidence unless disputed. A certificate for electronic evidence under s.63 is signed by the person in charge of the device and an expert.
[Additional] 6b. Digitising Land Records: DILRMP, ULPIN, SVAMITVA and NAKSHA
The Patwari's Khasra is going digital. NCERT noted that some states were computerising land records; four central programmes now do this at national scale.
Key Terms: Land Records
| Programme | What it is | Latest official status |
|---|---|---|
| DILRMP (Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme) | Department of Land Resources (Ministry of Rural Development); a Central Sector scheme (PIB, Feb-2021) | DILRMP 3.0: operational guidelines launched 11 September 2026, with 100% central funding (Prasar Bharati/AIR News) |
| ULPIN ("Bhu-Aadhaar") | A 14-digit alphanumeric ID for each land parcel, generated from the geo-coordinates of the parcel's vertices; follows ECCMA and OGC standards (DoLR) | Assigned to over 36 crore land parcels in 29 States/UTs as of November 2025 (PIB, 1-Jan-2026) |
| SVAMITVA | Ministry of Panchayati Raj; drone survey of inhabited (abadi) village land and property cards for house owners; launched 24 April 2020, National Panchayati Raj Day | Drone survey in 3.30 lakh villages; 3.24 crore cards prepared for 1.97 lakh villages, about 2.72 crore distributed (PIB, 4-Aug-2026) |
| NAKSHA (National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations) | A DoLR pilot for urban land records by aerial survey, inaugurated at Raisen, Madhya Pradesh (DoLR, 19-Feb-2025) | 157 urban local bodies; aerial flying complete in 116 (PIB, 1-Jan-2026) |
[Additional] Land Records and Land Acquisition (GS2 Governance, GS3 Land Reform)
How far digitisation has gone (DoLR Year-End Review, PIB, 1-Jan-2026): records of rights computerised in 97.27% of villages; cadastral maps digitised for 97.14% of the country; text and maps integrated for 84.89%.
Why it matters: the NCERT story turns on a moved bund. A record that ties each parcel to fixed geo-coordinates (ULPIN) and is available online makes such a change easier to prove, and banks can lend against a property card or a clear record of rights. SVAMITVA and DILRMP cover different land: SVAMITVA maps the inhabited part of the village, DILRMP the agricultural and other land.
Land acquisition. The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 (LARR, Act 30 of 2013) repealed the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (s.114).
- Consent: at least 80% of affected families when land is acquired for private companies, 70% for public-private partnership projects; none is required for the government's own projects.
- Compensation: market value multiplied by a factor of 1 to 2 in rural areas (the State decides) and 1 in urban areas, plus a 100% solatium. "Up to four times in rural areas" is the ceiling, not a rule.
Police reform. Prakash Singh v. Union of India (22 September 2006): the Supreme Court issued directions to the Centre, States and UTs on police reform, to apply until they framed laws of their own. Police is a State subject (List II, Entry 2), so most of the follow-through lies with the States.
Daughters and land. The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 came into force on 9 September 2005: from that date a daughter is a coparcener by birth in joint Hindu family property, "in her own right" like a son. In Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma (11 August 2020) the Supreme Court held that because the right is by birth, it does not matter whether the father was alive on 9 September 2005.
PART 3 — UPSC Integration
Rural administration is the permanent executive on the ground: appointed officials (Patwari, Tehsildar, S.H.O., Collector, Superintendent of Police) who carry out decisions and keep records, alongside the elected Panchayat of the previous chapter. NCERT's two stories map onto two GS2 debates. Mohan's struggle to file a complaint is the everyday face of police reform (Prakash Singh, 2006) and of the BNSS rules on the Zero FIR and e-FIR. The moved bund is the everyday face of land records, now being digitised through DILRMP, ULPIN and SVAMITVA. The chapter's new law links rural administration to gender justice (GS1): equal coparcenary rights for daughters since 9 September 2005. Because police and land are State subjects, the gap between central schemes and state follow-through is a recurring Mains theme.
Exam Strategy
Prelims traps:
- Police is in the State List (List II, Entry 2), not the Union or Concurrent List; central armed police forces do not change this.
- FIR: CrPC s.154 until 30 June 2024; BNSS s.173 from 1 July 2024. Prohibitory orders: CrPC s.144 → BNSS s.163.
- Police custody under BNSS is still 15 days in total; what changed is that it can be taken in parts within the first 40 or 60 days.
- e-FIR must be signed within three days; forensics compulsory for offences of seven years or more.
- SVAMITVA = drone survey of inhabited village (abadi) land, Ministry of Panchayati Raj, launched 24 April 2020. DILRMP/ULPIN = Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development. NAKSHA = urban land survey pilot.
- ULPIN has 14 characters and identifies the parcel, not the owner.
- LARR 2013 replaced the Land Acquisition Act 1894; consent 80% (private) / 70% (PPP).
- Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005: in force 9 September 2005; daughters are coparceners by birth (Vineeta Sharma, 2020).
Mains frameworks:
- On police accountability at the station: NCERT's Mohan story → duty to register a complaint (Zero FIR, e-FIR under BNSS s.173) → Prakash Singh directions → State-subject constraint.
- On land records: problems (disputes, benami, credit) → tools (DILRMP, ULPIN, SVAMITVA) → limits (old cadastral maps, mutation delays, women's names missing from records).
Practice Questions
Practice (UPSC-pattern, not past papers).
Prelims:
The SVAMITVA scheme issues property cards for:
(a) Urban slum dwellers
(b) Forest-dwelling tribal communities
(c) Inhabited (abadi) areas of villages
(d) Agricultural landholdings"Police" is listed in which List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution?
(a) State List
(b) Union List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) It is a residuary subjectUnder the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, an FIR given by electronic communication is taken on record when the informant signs it within:
(a) 24 hours
(b) Three days
(c) Seven days
(d) Fifteen daysConsider the following statements:
- ULPIN is a 14-digit alphanumeric identification number for a land parcel.
- NAKSHA is a survey programme for agricultural land in villages.
Which is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
- ULPIN is a 14-digit alphanumeric identification number for a land parcel.
Mains:
"Digitised land records will reduce rural litigation only if the record on the ground is right." Discuss with reference to DILRMP, ULPIN and SVAMITVA. (GS2, 15 marks)
How far do the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita's provisions on the Zero FIR and e-FIR address the problems of a complainant at a rural police station? (GS2, 10 marks)
📦 Revision Capsule
Hard Facts
- More than six lakh villages (NCERT); police station has its own area; S.H.O. in charge; SP supervises the district's police
- Patwari (Lekhpal, Kanungo, Karamchari, Village Officer): measures land, keeps the Khasra, collects land revenue; Tehsildar hears disputes; District Collector at the top
- Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005: in force 9-Sep-2005; daughters coparceners by birth
- BNS / BNSS / BSA in force 1-Jul-2024; FIR = BNSS s.173; s.144 → s.163
- SVAMITVA: 3.24 crore cards prepared, 2.72 crore distributed (PIB, 4-Aug-2026); ULPIN: 36 crore parcels (Nov-2025)
Core Concepts
- Appointed officials run day-to-day administration alongside elected Panchayats
- Land records prevent disputes and unlock credit; equal rights need names in the record
- Police and land are State subjects
Confused Pairs
- Patwari (village records) vs Tehsildar (tehsil; hears disputes, supervises Patwaris)
- SVAMITVA (abadi land, MoPR) vs DILRMP/ULPIN (all land records, DoLR) vs NAKSHA (urban)
- CrPC s.154 / s.144 vs BNSS s.173 / s.163
PYQ Pattern
- No UPSC question in the BharatNotes bank is on this chapter's topics. Police reform, land records and the new criminal codes are standard GS2 and GS3 themes.
Sources
Sources
- NCERT, Social and Political Life – I (Class VI), ch. 6 "Rural Administration" (2020-21 print), and the Rationalised 2023-24 edition, ch. 5: NCERT's book archives as captured by the Wayback Machine, 2020 copy and 2023-24 copy.
- The Constitution of India, as on 11 November 2025, Seventh Schedule, List II, Entry 2: legislative.gov.in.
- Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023; Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023; Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (Gazette of India, 25-Dec-2023), hosted by MHA: BNS, BNSS, BSA; PIB, CrPC and BNSS: A Comparative Analysis, May 2024: static.pib.gov.in. Commencement on 1-Jul-2024 as recorded by the Patna High Court, Zain Raza v. State of Bihar, 17-Jan-2025 (Indian Kanoon), and the Delhi High Court, Geeta Sharma v. Rajan Bhanot, 29-Aug-2026 (Indian Kanoon).
- PIB (Ministry of Panchayati Raj), SVAMITVA, 4-Aug-2026: pib.gov.in; PIB, Year-End Review 2025, Department of Land Resources, 1-Jan-2026: pib.gov.in; PIB, Budget 2021-22 and DILRMP, Feb-2021: pib.gov.in; DoLR, Bhu-Aadhar (ULPIN) and NAKSHA launch, 19-Feb-2025; AIR News, DILRMP 3.0 guidelines, 11-Sep-2026: newsonair.gov.in.
- Supreme Court: Prakash Singh v. Union of India, 22-Sep-2006 (Indian Kanoon); Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma, 11-Aug-2020 (Indian Kanoon). LARR Act 2013 text: Indian Kanoon.
