BharatNotes Time needed: 3–4 hours | High-yield rating: ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (12–18 questions per paper)
Ancient India
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Period | 3300–1300 BCE; Mature phase: 2600–1900 BCE |
| Sites in India | Lothal (Gujarat), Dholavira (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Rakhigarhi (Haryana) |
| Sites in Pakistan | Mohenjo-daro (Sindh), Harappa (Punjab) |
| Great Bath | Mohenjo-daro — earliest public water tank in the ancient world |
| Dholavira | UNESCO World Heritage Site (2021); India's 40th UNESCO WHS; on Khadir Bet island, Great Rann of Kutch |
| Script | Undeciphered; written right to left |
| Town planning | Grid layout; underground drainage; standardised burnt bricks (ratio 1:2:4) |
| Trade | No evidence of a palace economy; seals found in Mesopotamia — evidence of trade |
| Decline theories | Climate change/drought (mainstream); Aryan invasion (discarded); flooding |
Additional high-yield IVC facts:
- No iron: IVC was a Bronze Age / Chalcolithic civilisation — iron was unknown
- No horse (mostly): Horse bones absent from most IVC sites; disputed jawbone at Surkotada (Gujarat) — still debated
- Standardised weights: Cuboid weights in binary ratios (1:2:4:8:16:32:64); material = chert
- No confirmed temples: Most elaborate public structure = Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro)
- Pashupati Seal: Horned figure in yoga posture; surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo, two deer); proto-Shiva interpretation
- Largest site: Rakhigarhi (Haryana, ~550 ha) — larger than Mohenjo-daro; DNA study (2019) showed no Steppe ancestry in IVC people
Prelims trap: Rakhigarhi = largest IVC site. Dholavira = India's 40th UNESCO WHS (2021). Kalibangan (Rajasthan) has the earliest evidence of a ploughed field (~2800 BCE).
Vedic Age
| Period | Features |
|---|---|
| Early Vedic (Rigvedic): 1500–1000 BCE | Sapta Sindhu (Punjab/Haryana); pastoral; tribal; Indra = most prominent deity; Rigveda = oldest text |
| Later Vedic: 1000–600 BCE | Expanded to Gangetic plain; agriculture dominant; varna system rigid; Brahma became supreme deity |
Vedic literature hierarchy: Vedas → Brahmanas → Aranyakas → Upanishads ("Vedanta")
The Four Vedas:
| Veda | Content | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Rigveda | 1,028 hymns; 10,552 mantras; 10 Mandalas | Oldest Veda and oldest text in any Indo-European language; Indra is most prominent deity; Books 2–7 are the oldest "family books" |
| Samaveda | 1,875 verses; only 75 original | Rest borrowed from Rigveda; set to music; used by Udgatri priests; called "Veda of melodies"; root of Indian classical music |
| Yajurveda | Prose + verse | Ritual formulas (yajus); two recensions — Krishna (Black) and Shukla (White); used by Adhvaryu priests |
| Atharvaveda | Spells, charms, healing | Latest Veda; deals with magic and medicine; least connected to Soma sacrifice |
Vedangas (Six Auxiliary Limbs):
| Vedanga | Subject | Key Text |
|---|---|---|
| Shiksha | Phonetics | — |
| Kalpa | Ritual procedures | Shrauta, Grihya, Dharma Sutras |
| Vyakarana | Grammar | Panini's Ashtadhyayi (~4,000 sutras; c. 4th century BCE) |
| Nirukta | Etymology | Yaska's Nirukta |
| Chandas | Metre | Pingala's Chandas-shastra |
| Jyotisha | Astronomy | Vedanga Jyotisha |
Epics and Puranas:
| Text | Author | Scale | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mahabharata | Vyasa (attributed) | ~1,00,000 shlokas; 18 Parvas | Longest epic in the world; includes Bhagavad Gita (Bhishma Parva); also called "Jaya" |
| Ramayana | Valmiki (Adi Kavi) | ~24,000 shlokas; 7 Kandas | "Adi Kavya" — first poem |
| 18 Major Puranas | Various | — | Bhagavata Purana most popular |
Prelims trap: Samaveda = "Veda of melodies" but has fewest original hymns (only 75). Rigveda = oldest; Atharvaveda = latest. Panini's Ashtadhyayi = Vyakarana Vedanga. Sabha = assembly of elders; Samiti = general assembly — early democratic institutions.
Jainism
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Founder/Reformer | Mahavira — 24th and last Tirthankara of the current cosmic cycle |
| Birth name | Vardhamana |
| Born | ~599 BCE, Kundagram near Vaishali (Bihar); Kshatriya family |
| Death | ~527 BCE (Shvetambara) / ~510 BCE (Digambara); Pavapuri, Bihar |
| 5 Vows (Pancha Mahavrata) | Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya (added by Mahavira), Aparigraha |
| Earlier 23 Tirthankaras | 1st = Rishabhanatha (Adinath); 23rd = Parshvanatha (had only 4 vows) |
| Two sects | Digambara (sky-clad); Shvetambara (white-clad) |
| Three Ratnas | Right faith, Right knowledge, Right conduct |
Prelims trap: Mahavira did NOT found Jainism — he was the 24th reformer. He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
Buddhism & Buddhist Councils
Core teachings: Four Noble Truths; Eightfold Path; Middle Path; Nirvana = liberation.
Four Noble Truths: Dukkha (suffering exists) → Samudaya (cause = craving/tanha) → Nirodha (cessation possible = Nirvana) → Magga (Eightfold Path leads there)
Buddhist Councils:
| Council | Location | Date | King | Presided by | Key Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | Rajgriha (Rajgir, Bihar) | 483 BCE | Ajatashatru (Haryanka) | Mahakashyapa | Compiled Vinaya + Sutta Pitaka (oral) |
| 2nd | Vaishali (Bihar) | 383 BCE | Kalashoka (Shishunaga) | Sabakami | 10 points dispute; first schism — Theravada vs Mahasanghika |
| 3rd | Pataliputra (Bihar) | 250 BCE | Ashoka (Maurya) | Moggaliputta Tissa | Compiled Abhidhamma Pitaka; sent missions to 9 regions |
| 4th | Kashmir (Kundalvana) | ~72 CE | Kanishka I (Kushana) | Vasumitra (chair); Ashvaghosha | Compiled Mahayana canon in Sanskrit; formalised Mahayana |
Buddhist architecture:
| Structure | Purpose | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Stupa | Relic mound | Anda (dome); Harmika; Chatravali (umbrella); Torana (gateway) |
| Chaitya | Prayer hall | Apsidal hall with stupa inside; horseshoe arch (chaitya window) |
| Vihara | Monastery | Cells around central courtyard |
Key Buddhist sites:
- Sanchi Stupa (MP): Originally built by Ashoka (3rd c BCE); enlarged by Satavahanas; 4 carved toranas; UNESCO WHS
- Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): 30 rock-cut caves; 5th century CE main phase; 5 Chaityas (9,10,19,26,29); rest Viharas; paintings famous; UNESCO WHS
- Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): 34 caves — Buddhist (1–12), Hindu (13–29), Jain (30–34); Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) = largest monolithic rock-cut structure; UNESCO WHS
Schools of Buddhism:
| School | Key Features |
|---|---|
| Theravada | Oldest surviving; Pali Canon; individual liberation; Sri Lanka, SE Asia |
| Mahayana | Bodhisattva ideal; Sanskrit texts; China, Japan, Korea |
| Vajrayana | Tantric; Tibet, Bhutan; emerged 7th century CE |
Prelims trap: 1st council = Rajgriha; 2nd = Vaishali (NOT Ashoka's council); 3rd = Pataliputra under Ashoka presided by Moggaliputta Tissa; 4th = Kashmir under Kanishka presided by Vasumitra. Ajanta = paintings famous; Ellora = sculptures + Kailasa Temple. Theravada is the correct term (not "Hinayana").
Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE)
| Ruler | Key Events |
|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE) | Founded empire; defeated Nanda dynasty; defeated Seleucus Nicator 305 BCE; abdicated; embraced Jainism under Bhadrabahu; died by Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) |
| Bindusara (298–268 BCE) | "Amitraghata" (slayer of enemies) |
| Ashoka (268–232 BCE) | Kalinga War 261 BCE; converted to Buddhism; Dhamma policy; sent missions to Sri Lanka, SE Asia, Central Asia |
- Arthashastra: Kautilya/Chanakya — statecraft, economy, military
- Megasthenes: Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court; wrote Indica
- Ashoka's Dhamma — NOT Buddhism per se; universal ethical code: Ahimsa, religious tolerance, welfare of people and animals
Ashoka's Edicts:
| Category | Number | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| Major Rock Edicts | 14 | Dhamma, religious tolerance, animal welfare |
| Major Pillar Edicts | 7 | Administration and Dhamma |
| Minor Pillar Edicts | Several | Lumbini Pillar Edict confirms Buddha's birthplace; Schism Edict |
- Rock Edict XIII: Mentions the Kalinga War; Ashoka's remorse and conversion
- Rock Edict XII: Religious tolerance — "all sects may dwell in all places"
- Lumbini Pillar Edict (Rummindei, Nepal): "Hida Budhe jate" — confirms Lumbini as Buddha's birthplace; Ashoka halved the tax on Lumbini
Prelims trap: Ashoka = "Devanampiya Piyadassi" in inscriptions. Edicts use Dhamma (Pali), NOT Dharma. Rock Edict XIII = Kalinga War (not XIV). Lumbini birthplace = Pillar Edict, not Rock Edict. Major Rock Edicts = 14; Major Pillar Edicts = 7.
Post-Maurya Period
Shunga Dynasty (185–73 BCE):
- Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga — killed last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha at a military parade
- Brahmanical revival; performed two Ashvamedha yajnas
- Sanchi stupa gateways (toranas) added/enlarged during Shunga period
- Patanjali (Mahabhashya — commentary on Panini) flourished under Pushyamitra
Satavahana Dynasty (1st c BCE – 3rd c CE):
- "Lord of the Dakshinapatha" (Deccan — Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra)
- Greatest ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni — defeated Shakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas
- Matrilineal naming (Gautamiputra = "son of Gautami") — NOT matriarchal
- Amaravati School of Art — white limestone sculptures (NOT sandstone); aniconism in early phase
- Issued lead coins (distinctive)
Kushana Empire (1st–3rd c CE):
- Greatest ruler: Kanishka I (c. 127–150 CE)
- 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir; Vasumitra presided; Ashvaghosha (wrote Buddhacharita) also prominent; compiled Mahayana canon
- Saka Era (78 CE) used in India's National Calendar
- Gandhara art: Grey schist; Greco-Buddhist; northwest India — Buddha with wavy hair, draped robes (Apollo-like)
- Mathura art: Red sandstone; purely Indian; Buddha with shaved head, thin muslin robe
Prelims trap: Gandhara = grey schist; Mathura = red sandstone. Pushyamitra Shunga = Brahmanical revival, but Sanchi stupa expanded under him. Satavahana = Amaravati art = limestone (not sandstone, not marble).
Sangam Age
Tamil tradition speaks of three Sangams (literary academies) at Madurai; only the Third Sangam's works survive.
| Text | Significance |
|---|---|
| Tolkappiyam | Oldest surviving Tamil grammar; attributed to Tolkappiyar |
| Thirukkural | 1,330 couplets by Tiruvalluvar; 3 books — Aram (virtue), Porul (polity), Inbam (love); called "Tamil Veda" |
| Silappatikaram, Manimekalai | Twin Tamil epics; Silappatikaram by Ilango Adigal; Manimekalai by Sittalai Sattanar |
| Purananuru, Akananuru | Major Sangam poetry anthologies |
Three kingdoms: Chola, Chera, Pandya. Capital: Madurai.
Prelims trap: Tolkappiyam = oldest grammar, not oldest Tamil text overall. Thirukkural = "Universal Veda" or "Tamil Veda."
Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) — "Golden Age"
| Ruler | Dates | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta I | 320–335 CE | Founded empire; title "Maharajadhiraja"; married Kumaradevi of Lichchhavi — key political alliance |
| Samudragupta | 335–375 CE | "Napoleon of India" (coined by V.A. Smith); Allahabad Pillar Inscription (court poet Harishena); Ashvamedha yajna; played the veena |
| Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) | 375–415 CE | Defeated Shakas; Fa Hien (Faxian) visited 399–412 CE; Navaratnas at court (Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira) |
| Kumaragupta I | 415–455 CE | Founded Nalanda University (~427 CE) |
| Skandagupta | 455–467 CE | Repelled Huna invasions; last great Gupta emperor |
Gupta scholars and achievements:
| Scholar | Field | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Aryabhata (476–550 CE) | Mathematics & Astronomy | Aryabhatiya 499 CE; pi = 3.1416; Earth rotates on axis; zero and place-value system |
| Varahamihira | Astronomy | Brihat Samhita, Panchasiddhantika |
| Kalidasa | Sanskrit literature | Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava |
Iron Pillar of Delhi:
- Built during Chandragupta II period (c. 375–415 CE); Vishnudhvaja inscription calls the king "Chandra"
- Location: Qutb complex (Mehrauli), Delhi — moved there in medieval period
- Height: 7.21 m; has not rusted for 1,600+ years — high phosphorus content + protective passive film (misawite)
Gupta art:
- Ajanta paintings (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17): Best-preserved; tempera on plaster; Jataka stories; Vakataka period (5th c CE)
- Sarnath Buddha (dharmachakra mudra): Epitome of Gupta serenity; held in Sarnath Museum
- Mathura school (Gupta phase): Red sandstone; serene, spiritualised Buddha — synthesis of earlier Mathura and Gandhara styles
End of Gupta Empire: Huna invasions from 480s CE; empire fragmented by 550 CE.
Prelims trap: "Napoleon of India" = Samudragupta (coined by V.A. Smith). Fa Hien = Chandragupta II (NOT Ashoka). Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) = Harsha (7th c CE). Nalanda = Kumaragupta I (not Chandragupta II). Iron Pillar = Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi (NOT Agra).
Chola Empire (9th–13th century CE) — South India's Peak
| Ruler | Reign | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Raja Raja Chola I | 985–1014 CE | Built Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (completed 1010 CE; 66 m tower; UNESCO WHS); naval campaigns to Sri Lanka, Maldives |
| Rajendra Chola I | 1014–1044 CE | Naval expedition to SE Asia (~1025 CE) — defeated Srivijaya (Sumatra), Kedah; title "Gangaikonda"; built Gangaikondacholapuram with replica Brihadeeswarar-style temple |
| Kulottunga I | 1070–1122 CE | United Chola and Eastern Chalukya; abolished tolls |
- Chola local governance: Nadu (sub-district), Ur (village assembly), Sabha (Brahmin assembly) — earliest local democracy in South India
- Nataraja bronzes: Finest Panchaloha (five-metal alloy) bronze sculptures; Nataraja = iconic Chola art
Prelims trap: Brihadeeswarar = Raja Raja Chola I (father). Gangaikondacholapuram = Rajendra Chola I (son). Both temples = UNESCO WHS ("Great Living Chola Temples").
Medieval India
Bhakti & Sufi Movements
Bhakti Saints (key details):
| Saint | Period | Region | Philosophy / Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adi Shankara | 8th c CE | All India | Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism); established 4 mathas (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Joshimath) |
| Ramanuja | 1017–1137 CE | Tamil Nadu | Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism); founded Sri Vaishnava tradition |
| Madhva | 1238–1317 CE | Udupi, Karnataka | Dvaita (dualism); Udupi Krishna temple |
| Ramananda | 14th–15th c | Varanasi | Bridge between south and north Bhakti; taught in Hindi; 12 disciples including Kabir (Muslim weaver), Ravidas (cobbler), Dhana (Jat), Sena (barber) |
| Kabir | c. 1440–1518 CE | Varanasi/Maghar | Nirguna Bhakti (formless God); Muslim weaver; verses in Guru Granth Sahib |
| Mirabai | c. 1498–1546 CE | Rajasthan | Saguna Bhakti; devotee of Krishna; composed bhajans in Rajasthani/Braj Bhasha |
| Basavanna | 1131–1168 CE | Karnataka | Founded Lingayat/Veerashaiva; Anubhava Mantapa; composed Vachanas; rejected caste |
| Tukaram | c. 1598–1650 CE | Maharashtra | Varkari movement; devotee of Vitthal/Vithoba (Pandharpur); ~4,500 Abhangas |
| Chaitanya | 1486–1534 CE | Bengal | Gaudiya Vaishnavism; Hare Krishna mahamantra; sankirtan |
| Guru Nanak | 1469–1539 CE | Punjab (born Talwandi = now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan) | Founded Sikhism; equality; monotheism; seva; died at Kartarpur |
| Alvars | 6th–9th c CE | Tamil Nadu | 12 Vaishnavite poet-saints; Nalayira Divya Prabandham (4,000 Tamil verses); only female Alvar = Andal |
| Nayanmars | 6th–8th c CE | Tamil Nadu | 63 Shaivite poet-saints; Tevaram; key: Appar, Sundarar, Manikkavasagar |
Sufi Orders (Silsilas):
| Order | Key Figure in India | Distinctive Features |
|---|---|---|
| Chishti | Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer); Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi) | Most popular in India; refused state patronage; used Sama/Qawwali in worship |
| Suhrawardi | Bahauddin Zakariya (Multan) | Accepted state patronage openly |
| Qadiri | Mian Mir (Punjab); Dara Shikoh a follower | Punjab, Deccan; flexible |
| Naqshbandi | Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf Sani) — 1564–1624 | Most orthodox; rejected Sama; influenced Aurangzeb's orthodoxy |
Prelims trap: Chishti = most popular; Naqshbandi = most orthodox. Chishti = YES Qawwali; Suhrawardi and Naqshbandi = NO. Moinuddin Chishti dargah = Ajmer; Nizamuddin Auliya dargah = Delhi.
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
| Dynasty | Period | Ruler | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave / Mamluk | 1206–1290 | Qutb ud-Din Aibak (1206–1210) | Founder; started Qutb Minar + Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque; "Lakh Baksh"; died in polo accident, Lahore |
| Iltutmish (1211–1236) | Completed Qutb Minar; shifted capital Lahore → Delhi; first to receive Caliphal investiture from Abbasid Caliph (1229); created Chalisa (Group of Forty) | ||
| Razia Sultana (1236–1240) | First woman Sultan of medieval India; nominated by father Iltutmish; deposed by Chalisa nobles; killed 1240 | ||
| Balban (1266–1287) | "Blood and iron" policy; destroyed Chalisa; introduced Persian court etiquette (Sijda/prostration; Paibos/kissing of feet) | ||
| Khalji | 1290–1320 | Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) | 4 price-control markets in Delhi; repelled Mongols 4 times; Deccan conquest via Malik Kafur (1307–12) |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) | Capital Delhi → Daulatabad (formerly Devagiri); token currency; Ibn Battuta visited (Rihla) |
| Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) | Canals; hospitals; new cities; translated Sanskrit texts into Persian | ||
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Weak rulers post-Timur's invasion (1398) | — |
| Lodi | 1451–1526 | Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) | Defeated and killed by Babur at First Battle of Panipat (1526); Delhi Sultanate ended |
Prelims trap: Aibak started Qutb Minar; Iltutmish completed it. Iltutmish = first Caliphal recognition. Chalisa = Iltutmish's nobles; Balban destroyed their power. Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted capital to Daulatabad (NOT "Devagiri to Delhi"). Ibn Battuta = Muhammad bin Tughlaq (NOT Alauddin).
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Founded | 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka I (Sangama brothers) on the southern bank of Tungabhadra river |
| Capital | Vijayanagara (Hampi) — UNESCO WHS (1986) |
| Four dynasties | Sangama (1336–1485); Saluva (1485–1505); Tuluva (1505–1570); Aravidu (1570–1646) |
| Greatest ruler | Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529; Tuluva dynasty); composed Amuktamalyada (Telugu); patronised Ashtadiggajas (eight poets) |
| Administration | Nayankara system — military feudalism; Nayakas later became independent (Tamil Nadu Nayak kingdoms) |
| Battle of Talikota | January 23, 1565 — four Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar) vs Rama Raya; Rama Raya killed; Hampi sacked |
Prelims trap: Rama Raya (not king Sadashiva, who was a puppet) commanded at Talikota. Hampi = UNESCO WHS since 1986.
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
| Emperor | Reign | Key Event/Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | 1st Battle of Panipat (1526); used tulughma tactics and gunpowder; Baburnama |
| Humayun | 1530–1556 | Lost empire at Kanauj (1540) to Sher Shah Suri; regained 1555 |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | Din-i-Ilahi (1582); abolished jizya (1564); Mansabdari system; Fatehpur Sikri; Ibadat Khana |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Patron of painting; Thomas Roe (British envoy 1615) |
| Shah Jahan | 1628–1658 | Taj Mahal (1632–1653); Red Fort; Peacock Throne |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Re-imposed jizya (1679); Deccan campaigns; longest reign |
Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): Grand Trunk Road (Sonargaon–Peshawar); Rupiya coin; land revenue reform (Zabti system basis).
Mansabdari System (Akbar, ~1571): Two ranks — Zat (personal rank, determines salary) and Sawar (cavalry rank, number of horsemen to maintain). Ranged from 10 to 10,000 (princes).
Maratha Empire — Shivaji to Panipat:
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Born | February 19, 1630; Shivneri Fort, Pune; Bhonsale clan |
| Coronation | June 6, 1674 as Chhatrapati (Emperor) at Raigad Fort; Vedic rituals by Gaga Bhatt |
| Treaty of Purandar | June 11, 1665 with Jai Singh I (Mughal); surrendered 23 forts; kept 12 |
| Escape from Agra | August 17, 1666 — hid in sweet/fruit baskets; returned to Deccan |
| Death | April 3, 1680; Raigad Fort |
| Ashtapradhan | 8-minister council; Peshwa = PM; Senapati = army chief |
Peshwas:
| Peshwa | Period | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Balaji Vishwanath (1st) | 1713–1720 | Made Peshwaship hereditary |
| Baji Rao I (2nd) | 1720–1740 | Greatest Peshwa; never lost a battle; Delhi raid 1737 |
| Balaji Baji Rao | 1740–1761 | Peshwa at time of 3rd Panipat; died of grief |
| Baji Rao II (last) | 1796–1818 | Signed Treaty of Bassein (1802); Peshwaship abolished by British |
Prelims trap: Akbar abolished jizya 1564; Aurangzeb re-imposed 1679. Din-i-Ilahi had ~18 followers — NOT a new religion. At 3rd Panipat (1761) Maratha commander = Sadashivrao Bhau (NOT Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, who stayed at Pune). Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali) led the opposing coalition.
Mughal Art and Architecture
| Monument | Emperor/Builder | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Ram Bagh (Aram Bagh), Agra | Babur (1526) | Oldest surviving Mughal garden in India; Char Bagh (4-quadrant Persian garden) layout |
| Humayun's Tomb, Delhi | Bega Begum (Haji Begum), wife of Humayun; commissioned 1558, completed 1572 | First garden-tomb in Indian subcontinent; UNESCO WHS (1993); architect: Mirak Mirza Ghiyas |
| Fatehpur Sikri | Akbar (founded 1571) | Near Sufi saint Salim Chishti's khanqah; Mughal capital c. 1571–1585; UNESCO WHS |
| Buland Darwaza | Akbar (~1576) | "Gate of Victory"; 54 metres from ground; tallest gateway at time of construction |
| Taj Mahal, Agra | Shah Jahan (1632–1653) | Chief architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahauri; white marble from Makrana, Rajasthan; 28 types of precious stones; UNESCO WHS |
| Red Fort, Delhi | Shah Jahan (1639–1648) | Capital shifted Agra → Delhi (Shahjahanabad); UNESCO WHS |
| Bibi Ka Maqbara, Aurangabad | Prince Azam Shah (son of Aurangzeb), 1668–1669 | "Taj of the Deccan"; for mother Dilras Banu Begum; architect: Ata-ullah (son of Ustad Ahmad Lahauri) |
Prelims trap: Buland Darwaza = 54 metres (not 52 m). Humayun's Tomb architect = Mirak Mirza Ghiyas; builder = Bega Begum (same as Haji Begum). Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) — world's 2nd largest unsupported dome — is NOT Mughal; it is Adil Shahi (Deccan Sultanate), built 1656 for Muhammad Adil Shah.
Modern India — British Period
Establishment of British Power
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Battle of Plassey | June 23, 1757 | Clive vs Siraj-ud-Daulah; treachery of Mir Jafar; established British political power in Bengal |
| Battle of Buxar | October 22, 1764 | EIC (Munro) vs Mir Qasim + Nawab of Awadh (Shuja-ud-Daula) + Shah Alam II; Treaty of Allahabad — Diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa; consolidated British paramountcy |
| Permanent Settlement | 1793 | Lord Cornwallis; fixed land revenue with zamindars in Bengal permanently |
| Ryotwari Settlement | 1820 | Thomas Munro; direct settlement with peasants (Madras, Bombay) |
| Mahalwari Settlement | 1833 | Village communities (Northwest, Punjab) |
| Subsidiary Alliance | 1798 | Wellesley — Indian rulers pay for British troops; surrendered external sovereignty |
| Doctrine of Lapse | 1848–1856 | Dalhousie — states without natural heirs annexed; Jhansi, Nagpur, Satara, Awadh (1856) |
Important Treaties:
| Treaty | Year | Parties | Key Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Treaty of Salbai | 1782 | British EIC & Marathas (Mahadaji Scindia) | Ended First Anglo-Maratha War; status quo; British retained Salsette |
| Treaty of Bassein | 1802 | British EIC & Peshwa Bajirao II | Bajirao II accepted Subsidiary Alliance; triggered Second Anglo-Maratha War |
| Treaty of Sagauli | March 4, 1816 | British India & Nepal | Ended Anglo-Nepalese War; Nepal ceded Tarai + territories west of Kali River; British Resident at Kathmandu; origin of Gurkha regiments |
Prelims trap: Plassey = British political power; Buxar = consolidated it militarily. Treaty of Salbai = First Anglo-Maratha War; Treaty of Sagauli = Anglo-Nepalese war.
Important Acts & Commissions
| Act/Event | Year | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|
| Regulating Act | 1773 | First Parliamentary control over EIC |
| Pitt's India Act | 1784 | Board of Control; dual government |
| Charter Act 1813 | 1813 | Ended EIC trade monopoly; ₹1 lakh for Indian education |
| Charter Act 1833 | 1833 | EIC ceased trading; Governor-General of India (Bentinck first) |
| Government of India Act 1858 | 1858 | Crown rule; Secretary of State; Viceroy |
| Indian Councils Act 1861 | 1861 | Legislative Councils; Indians in viceroy's council |
| Indian Councils Act 1892 | 1892 | Limited elections introduced |
| Morley-Minto (ICA 1909) | 1909 | Separate electorates for Muslims; first Indian on Viceroy's Council = Satyendra Prasanna Sinha |
| Montagu-Chelmsford (GOI 1919) | 1919 | Dyarchy in provinces; bicameral legislature at Centre |
| Simon Commission | 1927 | Review of 1919 Act; no Indian members |
| Government of India Act 1935 | 1935 | Provincial autonomy; All-India Federation (never implemented); RBI, Federal Court, elections |
| Indian Independence Act 1947 | 1947 | Partition; dominion status |
Prelims trap: GoI Act 1935 = most detailed; basis of many Indian Constitution provisions. All-India Federation under GoIA 1935 never implemented (princes refused). Dyarchy = GoI Act 1919 (not 1909 = Morley-Minto).
Governors-General and Viceroys
Governors-General of Bengal (1773–1833)
| Person | Tenure | Key Acts / Signature Events |
|---|---|---|
| Warren Hastings | 1772–1785 | First GG of Bengal (under Regulating Act 1773); abolished Robert Clive's Dual Government (1772); Supreme Court at Fort William (1774); First Anglo-Maratha War → Treaty of Salbai (1782); Second Anglo-Mysore War vs Hyder Ali; codified Hindu and Muslim law; founded Calcutta Madrassa (1781); impeached by Edmund Burke (1788) — acquitted after 7-year trial (1795) |
| Lord Cornwallis | 1786–1793 | Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793) — fixed land revenue with zamindars permanently; Cornwallis Code (1793) — separated revenue, judicial, commercial branches; created Covenanted Civil Service with fixed salaries; excluded Indians from higher posts; Third Anglo-Mysore War → Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) — Tipu surrendered half his territory and gave two sons as hostages |
| Sir John Shore | 1793–1798 | Charter Act of 1793 (renewed EIC for 20 years); strict non-intervention policy — refused to support Nizam against Marathas at Battle of Kharda (1795); associated with "non-interference" doctrine |
| Lord Wellesley | 1798–1805 | Subsidiary Alliance System — first treaty with Nizam of Hyderabad (1798); states signing: Mysore (1799), Tanjore, Surat, Peshwa (Treaty of Bassein 1802); Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) — defeat and death of Tipu Sultan at Seringapatam; Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) — Battle of Assaye (his brother Arthur Wellesley / Duke of Wellington won); Fort William College, Calcutta (1800) — to train British civil servants in Indian languages; Censorship of Press Act (1799) |
| Lord Minto I | 1807–1813 | Treaty of Amritsar (1809) — fixed Sutlej as boundary with Ranjit Singh's Sikh Kingdom (blocked French-Sikh alliance in Napoleonic context); Charter Act of 1813 — ended EIC's India trade monopoly; permitted Christian missionaries; Rs 1 lakh for education |
| Lord Hastings | 1813–1823 | Anglo-Nepalese / Gurkha War (1814–16) → Treaty of Sugauli (1816) — Nepal ceded Sikkim + Shimla hills + Terai; British Resident at Kathmandu; beginning of Gurkha regiments; Pindari War (1817–18) — destroyed Pindari bands; Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18) — Peshwaship abolished; Maharashtra under direct British rule; Hindu College, Calcutta (1817) founded; abolished Wellesley's press censorship |
| Lord Amherst | 1823–1828 | First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26) → Treaty of Yandabo (1826) — British gained Arakan, Tenasserim, and Assam; Barrackpore Mutiny (1824) — 47th BNI sepoys refused to cross sea for Burma campaign (early precursor to 1857) |
Governors-General of India (1833–1858)
| Person | Tenure | Key Acts / Signature Events |
|---|---|---|
| Lord William Bentinck | 1828–1835 | First Governor-General of India (Charter Act 1833); Bengal Sati Regulation (1829) — abolished Sati (aided by Raja Ram Mohan Roy); Suppression of Thuggee (William Sleeman's campaigns); Macaulay's Minute on Education (1835) — English as medium of instruction, replacing Persian; abolished female infanticide in Rajputana; opened lower judicial posts to Indians |
| Sir Charles Metcalfe | 1835–1836 | Press Act of 1835 (Metcalfe Act) — abolished pre-publication censorship, freed Indian press from licensing; earned title "Liberator of the Indian Press"; Indians built Metcalfe Hall in Calcutta in his honour |
| Lord Auckland | 1836–1842 | Tripartite Treaty (1838) — Britain + Ranjit Singh + Shah Shuja; First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–42) — catastrophic failure; 1841 retreat from Kabul — 4,500 troops + 12,000 camp followers massacred; only Dr. Brydon initially reached Jalalabad; worst British military disaster in Asia; Auckland recalled in disgrace |
| Lord Ellenborough | 1842–1844 | Ended First Anglo-Afghan War; ordered General Pollock's army to re-enter Kabul (avenging 1841 massacre); Conquest of Sindh (1843) by Sir Charles Napier — Napier's famous "Peccavi" dispatch ("I have sinned/Sindh"); only GG recalled by Court of Directors during tenure |
| Lord Hardinge I | 1844–1848 | First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46); Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846) — Sikhs ceded Jullundur Doab + Kashmir (sold separately to Gulab Singh for Rs 75 lakh by Treaty of Amritsar 1846); army reduced; Treaty of Bhyroval (Dec 1846) — extended British supervision through a Council of Regency |
| Lord Dalhousie | 1848–1856 | Doctrine of Lapse — states lapsed: Satara (1848), Jaitpur, Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1853); Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) — Punjab annexed; Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) — Lower Burma annexed; Awadh annexed (1856) — on "misgovernance" grounds (NOT Doctrine of Lapse — Nawab had an heir); First railway: Bombay to Thane, April 16, 1853; electric telegraph Calcutta–Agra (1854); Post Office Act 1854; Wood's Despatch 1854 ("Magna Carta of English Education"); Public Works Department (PWD) founded; called "Maker of Modern India" and "Father of Indian Railways"; real name: James Andrew Ramsay |
| Lord Canning | 1856–1862 | Last GG of India (EIC) and First Viceroy of India (1858); managed 1857 Revolt; Queen's Proclamation (November 1, 1858) — promised to respect Indian customs; Indian Penal Code (1860); Code of Civil Procedure + Code of Criminal Procedure (1861); Indian Councils Act 1861 — portfolio system; three Universities founded 1857 (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras); abolished Doctrine of Lapse; nicknamed "Clemency Canning" for post-revolt restraint |
Viceroys of India (1858–1947)
| Person | Tenure | Key Acts / Signature Events |
|---|---|---|
| Lord Lawrence | 1864–1869 | Bhutan War (1864–65) → Treaty of Sinchula (1865) — Bhutan ceded the Duars; "Masterly Inactivity" policy toward Afghanistan (deliberately avoided involvement); Orissa Famine (1866) |
| Lord Lytton | 1876–1880 | Royal Titles Act (1876) — Queen Victoria proclaimed "Empress of India" (Kaiser-i-Hind); Delhi Durbar 1877 (during the Great Famine of 1876–78 — widely condemned as extravagant); Vernacular Press Act (1878) — "Gagging Act"; Arms Act (1878) — Indians required licences, Europeans exempted; Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80) — "Forward Policy"; Great Famine 1876–78 (~5–10 million deaths) |
| Lord Ripon | 1880–1884 | Local Self-Government Resolution (1882) — district boards + municipal committees with elected majorities; called "Father of Local Self-Government in India"; Hunter Commission (Education, 1882) — recommended primary education expansion; Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1882); Factory Act 1881 — first labour legislation in India; Ilbert Bill (1883) — proposed Indian judges try European subjects (fierce "white mutiny" opposition; passed in diluted form Jan 1884); Mysore Rendition (1881) — returned Mysore to Wadiyar rulers |
| Lord Dufferin | 1884–1888 | Indian National Congress founded (December 28, 1885) — A.O. Hume; venue: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay; W.C. Bonnerjee presided; 72 delegates; Dufferin gave initial approval; Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) — Upper Burma annexed (January 1, 1886); Bengal Tenancy Act (1885) |
| Lord Lansdowne | 1888–1894 | Indian Councils Act 1892 — limited indirect elections; members could ask questions; base for 1909 reforms; Age of Consent Act (1891) — raised consent age 10 → 12 years (Tilak controversially opposed as interference in Hindu custom); Durand Line (1893) — drawn by Mortimer Durand; boundary between British India and Afghanistan (present Pakistan-Afghanistan border) |
| Lord Curzon | 1899–1905 | Universities Act (1904) — increased government control over universities; Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904) — mandated preservation of archaeological sites; formalised Archaeological Survey of India; Delhi Durbar 1903 (for Edward VII's coronation); Partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905) — divided into Eastern Bengal + Assam (Muslim majority, capital Dacca) and reduced Bengal (Hindu majority); triggered Swadeshi Movement; resigned over Curzon-Kitchener Controversy (lost dispute over army control to Commander-in-Chief Kitchener) |
| Lord Minto II | 1905–1910 | Morley-Minto Reforms / Indian Councils Act 1909 (with Secretary of State John Morley) — expanded legislative councils; introduced separate electorates for Muslims; first Indian member of Viceroy's Executive Council: Satyendra Prasanna Sinha; called "Father of Communal Electorates" |
| Lord Hardinge II | 1910–1916 | Delhi Durbar (December 1911) — King George V visited (only British monarch to visit India); two historic announcements: (1) Partition of Bengal annulled and (2) capital shifted Calcutta → New Delhi; Delhi Conspiracy / Bomb Case (December 23, 1912) — bomb thrown at Hardinge during ceremonial entry; survived; masterminded by Rash Behari Bose; India sent 1 million+ soldiers in World War I |
| Lord Chelmsford | 1916–1921 | Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1918) → Government of India Act 1919 — introduced Dyarchy in provinces (Reserved subjects: law, finance; Transferred subjects: education, health, local govt); bicameral legislature at Centre; separate electorates extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians; Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919) — "no vakil, no dalil, no appeal"; Jallianwala Bagh (April 13, 1919) — General Dyer; 1,650 rounds; 379 official dead; Hunter Committee (1919) investigated massacre |
| Lord Reading | 1921–1926 | Chauri Chaura (February 4, 1922) — 22 policemen killed; NCM suspended February 12, 1922; Gandhi arrested (March 1922) — sentenced 6 years; Moplah Rebellion (1921) suppressed; only Jewish Viceroy of India; only Viceroy who was a Lord Chief Justice of England before appointment |
| Lord Irwin | 1926–1931 | Simon Commission boycott (1927–28) — "Simon Go Back"; Lala Lajpat Rai lathi-charged, died November 17, 1928; Irwin Declaration (October 1929) — Dominion Status as "natural issue" of India's progress; Lahore Congress (December 31, 1929) — Poorna Swaraj declared; Salt March (March 12 – April 6, 1930) — Gandhi, 78 satyagrahis, 387 km / 240 miles, Sabarmati → Dandi; Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) — CDM suspended; 90,000+ political prisoners released; also known as Lord Halifax (later Foreign Secretary during WWII) |
| Lord Willingdon | 1931–1936 | Second + Third Round Table Conferences; Communal Award (August 16, 1932) — by PM Ramsay MacDonald (not Willingdon); separate electorates for Depressed Classes triggered Gandhi's fast; Poona Pact (September 24, 1932) — Gandhi-Ambedkar; Depressed Classes get reserved seats (148 provincial) instead of separate electorates; Government of India Act 1935 — passed under Willingdon (royal assent August 1935); provincial autonomy; Federal Court; RBI; Burma separated; Sindh + Orissa as new provinces |
| Lord Linlithgow | 1936–1943 | Longest-serving Viceroy (7 years); GoI Act 1935 implemented — 1937 provincial elections; Congress won 7/11 provinces; Congress ministries resigned October/November 1939 (war declared without consultation); August Offer (August 8, 1940) — Dominion Status after war + expanded Executive Council; rejected by Congress + League; Cripps Mission (March 1942) — Stafford Cripps; offered Dominion Status post-war + provincial opt-out; rejected ("post-dated cheque on a failing bank" — Gandhi); Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942) — Linlithgow arrested Congress leadership within hours; Bengal Famine (1943) — ~3 million deaths |
| Lord Wavell | 1943–1947 | Simla Conference (June–July 1945) — proposed all-Indian Executive Council; failed because Jinnah claimed sole right to appoint all Muslim members; INA Trials (1945–46) — tried at Red Fort; Bhulabhai Desai lead counsel; public outrage; abandoned; Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (February 18, 1946); Cabinet Mission (March–June 1946) — Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, A.V. Alexander; 3-tier federal plan (Union + groups of provinces); rejected creation of Pakistan; failed; Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946); Interim Government (September 1946) — Nehru PM; replaced by Mountbatten when Attlee lost confidence |
| Lord Mountbatten | Mar–Aug 1947 | Last Viceroy of India; sworn in March 24, 1947; Mountbatten Plan / 3 June Plan (June 3, 1947) — partition into two dominions; provinces to choose; Bengal and Punjab to be partitioned; brought forward independence from June 1948 to August 1947; Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947); Pakistan independence August 14; India independence August 15, 1947; Radcliffe Line drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe (announced August 17, two days after independence); became first Governor-General of independent India (Jinnah became Pakistan's GG) |
Prelims traps — GG/Viceroy quick-fire:
| Trap | Correct Answer |
|---|---|
| First GG of Bengal | Warren Hastings (1773) |
| First GG of India (not Bengal) | Lord William Bentinck (1833, Charter Act 1833) |
| First Viceroy of India | Lord Canning (1858) |
| Last Viceroy | Lord Mountbatten |
| "Liberator of the Indian Press" | Sir Charles Metcalfe (Press Act 1835) |
| "Father of Local Self-Government" | Lord Ripon (1882 Resolution) |
| "Father of Indian Railways" | Lord Dalhousie |
| "Father of Communal Electorates" | Lord Minto II (ICA 1909) |
| "Masterly Inactivity" (Afghanistan) | Lord Lawrence |
| "Clemency Canning" | Lord Canning — mocked by British for post-1857 restraint |
| Dalhousie's real name | James Andrew Ramsay |
| Only GG recalled by Court of Directors | Lord Ellenborough (1844) |
| Only Jewish Viceroy | Lord Reading |
| Longest-serving Viceroy | Lord Linlithgow (7 years, 1936–43) |
| Sati abolished | Bentinck — Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829 |
| Permanent Settlement | Cornwallis — 1793 |
| Subsidiary Alliance (first state) | Wellesley — Nizam of Hyderabad (1798) |
| Doctrine of Lapse (Awadh — NOT lapsed) | Awadh annexed on "misgovernance" — Nawab had an heir |
| Partition of Bengal | Curzon (October 16, 1905) |
| Bengal Partition annulled | Hardinge II (December 12, 1911) |
| Capital shifted Calcutta → Delhi | Hardinge II (announced at 1911 Delhi Durbar) |
| Delhi Durbar 1877 | Lytton — Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress |
| Delhi Durbar 1903 | Curzon — Edward VII coronation |
| Delhi Durbar 1911 | Hardinge II — George V (only British monarch to visit India) |
| INC founded (Viceroy) | Lord Dufferin (December 28, 1885) |
| Dyarchy introduced | Chelmsford (GoI Act 1919) |
| Hunter Commission 1882 | Ripon — on Education |
| Hunter Committee 1919 | Chelmsford — on Jallianwala Bagh (same name, different body) |
| Cripps Mission | Linlithgow (March 1942) |
| Cabinet Mission | Wavell (March–June 1946) |
| August Offer | Linlithgow (August 1940) |
| Simla Conference 1945 | Wavell |
| Gandhi-Irwin Pact | Irwin — March 5, 1931 |
| Chauri Chaura (Viceroy) | Reading (1922) |
| Dandi March (Viceroy) | Irwin (1930) |
| Quit India (Viceroy) | Linlithgow (1942) |
| Treaty of Yandabo | Amherst — First Burmese War (1826) |
| Treaty of Sinchula | Lawrence — Bhutan (1865) |
| Treaty of Sugauli | Lord Hastings — Nepal (1816) |
| Treaty of Seringapatam | Cornwallis — Third Mysore War (1792) |
| Durand Line | Lansdowne (1893) |
| Wood's Despatch (issued by) | Charles Wood (Secretary of State) during Dalhousie's tenure |
| Radcliffe Line drawn by | Sir Cyril Radcliffe (NOT Mountbatten) |
| Hardinge I vs Hardinge II | Hardinge I = GG 1844–48 (First Sikh War); Hardinge II = Viceroy 1910–16 (Delhi capital) — different people |
| Minto I vs Minto II | Minto I = GG 1807–13 (Charter Act 1813); Minto II = Viceroy 1905–10 (Morley-Minto Reforms) — 100 years apart |
1857 — First War of Independence
Causes:
| Type | Specific Cause |
|---|---|
| Immediate | Greased cartridges for the new Enfield rifle — rumoured to use cow fat (offensive to Hindus) and pig fat (offensive to Muslims) |
| Military | General Service Enlistment Act 1856 (overseas service violating caste norms); racial arrogance |
| Political | Doctrine of Lapse; annexation of Awadh (1856) |
| Economic | De-industrialisation; heavy land revenue |
| Socio-religious | Missionary activity; interference with local customs |
Chronology:
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| March 29, 1857 | Mangal Pandey (34th Bengal Native Infantry) attacked British officers at Barrackpore; executed April 8, 1857 |
| May 10, 1857 | Meerut — actual outbreak; sepoys marched to Delhi |
| May 11–12, 1857 | Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed nominal leader at Delhi |
Revolt Centres and Leaders:
| Centre | Leader | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Delhi | Bahadur Shah Zafar (nominal); General Bakht Khan (real military) | Exiled to Rangoon; died 1862 |
| Lucknow | Begum Hazrat Mahal | Proclaimed son Birjis Qadr as Nawab; escaped to Nepal |
| Kanpur | Nana Sahib + Tantia Tope | Tantia Tope fought guerrilla campaign; captured and executed 1859 |
| Jhansi | Rani Lakshmibai | Died June 18, 1858 at Gwalior; most iconic figure |
| Bareilly | Khan Bahadur Khan | Declared himself Nawab of Bareilly |
| Arrah (Bihar) | Kunwar Singh | 80-year-old Rajput zamindar; died April 26, 1858 from wounds |
Outcome: Government of India Act 1858 — EIC rule ended; Crown assumed control; Lord Canning = first Viceroy. Queen Victoria's Proclamation (November 1, 1858) — respect for Indian religions and customs.
Historical interpretations:
| Historian | View |
|---|---|
| V.D. Savarkar | "First War of Indian Independence" — planned political uprising |
| British historians (Holmes, Kaye) | "Sepoy Mutiny" — military mutiny without national character |
| R.C. Majumdar | Not truly first war of independence — lacked national character |
| Government of India | Officially uses "First War of Independence" |
Prelims trap: Mangal Pandey = Barrackpore, March 29; executed April 8. Actual revolt = Meerut, May 10. Real military commander at Delhi = General Bakht Khan (not Bahadur Shah Zafar).
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
| Organisation | Founded | Founder | City | Key Reforms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brahmo Samaj | 1828 | Raja Ram Mohan Roy | Calcutta | Monotheism; opposed Sati (abolished 1829); founded Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822, first Persian paper by an Indian) |
| Arya Samaj | 1875 (April 10) | Swami Dayananda Saraswati | Bombay (first meeting) | "Back to the Vedas"; Shuddhi movement; DAV schools |
| Ramakrishna Mission | 1897 | Swami Vivekananda | Belur Math | "Practical Vedanta"; Chicago Parliament of Religions = September 11, 1893 |
| Prarthana Samaj | 1867 | Atmaram Pandurang (with M.G. Ranade) | Bombay | Moderate Hindu reform; widow remarriage; female education |
| Theosophical Society | 1875 (Nov 17) | Helena Blavatsky + Henry Olcott | Founded New York | HQ shifted to Adyar, Madras (1882); Annie Besant led it |
| Singh Sabha Movement | 1873 | Khem Singh Bedi | Amritsar / Lahore | Sikh reform; two wings — Amritsar (conservative), Tat Khalsa/Lahore (reformist) |
| Aligarh Movement | 1875 | Sir Syed Ahmad Khan | Aligarh | Madrasatul Uloom (1875) → MAO College (1877) → Aligarh Muslim University (1920) |
| Satyashodhak Samaj | 1873 | Jyotirao Phule | Pune | Anti-caste; Gulamgiri (1873); education for women and lower castes |
| Justice Movement | 1916 (Nov 20) | T.M. Nair, P. Thyagaraja Chetty | Madras | Non-Brahmin rights; Justice Party; Periyar joined later (president 1938) |
Prelims trap: Theosophical Society founded in New York (1875), NOT India; HQ moved to Adyar, Madras (1882). Arya Samaj first meeting = Bombay (April 10, 1875). Chicago Parliament of Religions = September 11, 1893. MAO College = 1877 (Madrasatul Uloom precursor = 1875). Periyar was NOT the founder of Justice Party — TM Nair and PT Thyagaraja Chetty founded it.
Revolutionary Organisations
| Organisation | Founded | Key Figure(s) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abhinav Bharat Society | 1904 | V.D. Savarkar (+ brother Ganesh) | Nashik; inspired by Mazzini's "Young Italy" |
| Anushilan Samiti | ~1902 | Satish Chandra Basu (Bengal) | Bengal; revolutionary violence; linked to Alipore Bomb case (1908) |
| Ghadar Party | July 15, 1913 | Lala Har Dayal (ideologue); Sohan Singh Bhakna (president) | Founded San Francisco; Indian diaspora; paper Ghadar; attempted mutiny 1915 (failed) |
Prelims trap: Abhinav Bharat = 1904 (not 1906). Ghadar Party HQ = San Francisco (Yugantar Ashram). Lala Har Dayal = chief ideologue.
Press Laws
| Act | Year | Viceroy | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vernacular Press Act | 1878 | Lord Lytton | Targeted Indian-language newspapers; "Gagging Act"; Amrita Bazar Patrika converted to English overnight to escape |
| Repeal of VPA | 1881 | Lord Ripon | Gesture of goodwill |
| Indian Press Act | 1910 | Lord Minto II | Revived restrictive provisions; security deposit |
| Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act | 1908 | Minto | Aimed at revolutionary publications |
Freedom Movement — Phase-wise
Phase 1: Moderate Era (1885–1905)
| Event | Date | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| INC founded | December 28, 1885 | A.O. Hume; first session at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay; 72 delegates; W.C. Bonnerjee presided |
| Dadabhai Naoroji elected MP | 1892 | Won Finsbury Central (London) by 3 votes; first Indian MP in British Parliament; "Grand Old Man of India" |
| INC demands | 1885–1905 | Petitions, memorials; Indianisation of civil services; self-government within British Empire (NOT independence) |
Drain of Wealth theory — Dadabhai Naoroji (Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, 1901; ideas from 1876): British rule drained India's wealth through "Home Charges" (salaries, pensions, debt interest paid to Britain).
Prelims trap: INC first session = December 28, 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (NOT Bombay Town Hall). 72 delegates (not 73 or 75). Moderates demanded self-government (Dominion status like Australia/Canada), NOT independence.
Phase 2: Extremists, Swadeshi & Partition of Bengal (1905–1919)
| Event | Date | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ganapati Festival (Tilak) | 1893 | Transformed Ganesh Chaturthi into political platform at Pune |
| Shivaji Festival (Tilak) | 1896 | Annual Shivaji birthday — political platform |
| Partition of Bengal | October 16, 1905 | Lord Curzon; Swadeshi movement launched same day; Tagore initiated Rakhi Bandhan; composed "Amar Sonar Bangla" (1905, now Bangladesh national anthem) |
| Muslim League founded | October 1, 1906 | Dhaka; Aga Khan III; Nawab Salimullah Khan hosted; demanded separate electorates |
| Surat Split | 1907 | Congress split Extremists vs Moderates; Tilak tried for sedition; deported to Mandalay 1908–1914 |
| Morley-Minto Reforms | 1909 | Separate electorates for Muslims; first Indian on Viceroy's Executive Council = Satyendra Prasanna Sinha |
| Delhi Durbar / Bengal annulled | December 12, 1911 | Lord Hardinge II; Bengal reunified; capital shifted Calcutta → Delhi |
| Home Rule Leagues | 1916 | Tilak's: April 28, 1916 (Belgaum); Besant's: September 3, 1916 (Adyar) |
| Lucknow Pact | December 1916 | INC + Muslim League unity; A.C. Majumdar (= Ambika Charan Mazumdar) presided Congress session; Jinnah negotiated for AIML; Congress conceded separate electorates |
| Rowlatt Act | March 18, 1919 | "No vakil, no dalil, no appeal"; "Black Act"; named after Justice Sidney Rowlatt |
| Jallianwala Bagh | April 13, 1919 | Baisakhi; Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer; 1,650 rounds; 379 official deaths; Hunter Commission; Tagore renounced knighthood May 30–31, 1919; Udham Singh shot O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor) at Caxton Hall London March 13, 1940; hanged July 31, 1940 |
Prelims trap: Home Rule — Tilak's = April 28, 1916; Besant's = September 3, 1916. Jallianwala Bagh = 1,650 rounds fired; 379 official dead. Tagore renounced knighthood over Jallianwala. Udham Singh's target was O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor), NOT Dyer (who died 1927).
Phase 3: Gandhian Era — Khilafat, NCM, CDM (1919–1942)
| Event | Date | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Gandhi in South Africa | 1893–1914 | Thrown off train at Pietermaritzburg June 7, 1893; coined "Satyagraha" in 1906; returned to India January 9, 1915 (celebrated as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas) |
| Khilafat Movement | 1919–1924 | Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali Jauhar + Shaukat Ali) — primary organisers; Gandhi supported; Caliphate abolished by Mustafa Kemal March 3, 1924 |
| NCM launched | August 1, 1920 | Gandhi's first mass movement; boycott of titles, schools, courts, foreign cloth; Tilak died same day |
| Chauri Chaura | February 4, 1922 | Mob burned police station (Gorakhpur); 22 policemen killed; NCM suspended February 12, 1922 |
| Gandhi arrested | March 10, 1922 | Sedition; sentenced 6 years; released 1924 |
| Simon Commission | 1927 (appointed), 1928 (India) | All-British; "Simon Go Back"; Lala Lajpat Rai lathi-charged; died November 17, 1928 |
| Lahore Session | December 31, 1929 | Jawaharlal Nehru presided; Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) declared; January 26, 1930 = first Independence Day celebration |
| Salt March (Dandi March) | March 12 – April 6, 1930 | 78 satyagrahis; Sabarmati Ashram → Dandi (Navsari, Gujarat); 387 km / 240 miles; CDM launched |
| Round Table Conferences | 1930–1932 | 1st RTC: Nov 12, 1930 – Jan 19, 1931 — Congress absent; 2nd RTC: Sep–Dec 1931 — Gandhi attended (sole rep); Gandhi vs Ambedkar on separate electorates; 3rd RTC: Nov 17–Dec 24, 1932 — Congress absent; led to GoI Act 1935 |
| Gandhi-Irwin Pact | March 5, 1931 | CDM suspended; Congress to attend 2nd RTC; political prisoners released |
| Communal Award | August 16, 1932 | Ramsay MacDonald; separate electorates for Depressed Classes; Gandhi's fast unto death |
| Poona Pact | September 24, 1932 | Separate electorates → reserved seats (148 seats in provincial legislatures, up from 78 in Communal Award; 71 was the central legislature figure); double-voting system |
| Individual Satyagraha | October 1940 | Vinoba Bhave = first satyagrahi (October 17, 1940); Nehru = second |
| Cripps Mission | March 22, 1942 | Arrived India; proposals rejected by Congress and League |
Prelims trap: Dandi March = 78 volunteers, 387 km / 240 miles. Gandhi-Irwin Pact = "Pact" not "Treaty." Chauri Chaura = 22 policemen killed. Poona Pact = 148 seats provincial (NOT 147; 78 was Communal Award's provincial figure). Khilafat ended because Turkey abolished Caliphate (March 3, 1924) — NOT British repression. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas = January 9 (Gandhi's return 1915).
Phase 4: Quit India Movement (August 1942)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | August 8, 1942 — AICC session, Gowalia Tank (August Kranti Maidan), Bombay; "Do or Die" speech |
| Leaders arrested | Night of August 8–9, 1942; entire Congress leadership jailed |
| Flag hoisted | Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted Congress flag at Gowalia Tank on August 9 — iconic act |
| Congress Radio | Usha Mehta ran underground Congress Radio from Bombay; went on air August 27, 1942; shut down November 12, 1942 |
| Parallel governments | Tamluk (Bengal): December 17, 1942; Satara Prati Sarkar (Maharashtra): formally August 1943 |
| Suppression | ~1,00,000 arrested; ~1,000 killed in police firing |
Prelims trap: Congress Radio on air August 27, 1942 — NOT August 14. Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the flag; Usha Mehta ran the radio.
Phase 5: Revolutionary Movements
| Leader/Event | Date | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Bhagat Singh | Born September 27, 1907 | HSRA (renamed Sep 10, 1928); killed ASP John P. Saunders (December 17, 1928) to avenge Lajpat Rai; Central Assembly bombing April 8, 1929 (with Batukeshwar Dutt); hanged March 23, 1931 |
| Kakori Conspiracy | August 9, 1925 | Train robbery near Kakori, Lucknow; Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh; Lahiri hanged December 17, 1927; Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh hanged December 19, 1927 |
| Chandrashekhar Azad | Born July 23, 1906 | Died February 27, 1931 at Alfred Park (now Azad Park), Allahabad — shot himself to avoid capture |
Prelims trap: Bhagat Singh born September 27 (not 28). Azad died at Alfred Park, Allahabad (now Azad Park). Saunders was an ASP (police), not an ICS officer.
Phase 6: INA, Final Push & Independence (1942–1947)
| Event | Date | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Subhas Chandra Bose | Resigned Congress: April 29, 1939; Forward Bloc: May 3, 1939; escaped house arrest: January 17, 1941; reached Singapore: July 2, 1943 | |
| Azad Hind Government | October 21, 1943 | Cathay Cinema Hall, Singapore; Bose = Head of State + PM + Minister of War; Rani of Jhansi Regiment (women's unit) commanded by Dr. Lakshmi Sahgal |
| INA Trials | From November 5, 1945 | Red Fort, Delhi; Shah Nawaz Khan, P.K. Sehgal, G.S. Dhillon; Bhulabhai Desai = lead counsel; massive public outrage; acquittals |
| Wavell Plan / Shimla Conference | June 25, 1945 | Failed — Jinnah refused to allow Congress to nominate Muslim members |
| Cabinet Mission | Arrived March 24, 1946 | 3-tier federal plan; rejected creation of Pakistan; Congress accepted reluctantly |
| Direct Action Day | August 16, 1946 | Muslim League; Great Calcutta Killings; ~5,000 died |
| Mountbatten sworn in | March 24, 1947 | Last Viceroy; Mountbatten Plan announced June 3, 1947 |
| Indian Independence | August 15, 1947 | Mountbatten = last Viceroy → first Governor-General of India; Nehru's "Tryst with Destiny" |
| Junagarh referendum | February 20, 1948 | People voted to join India |
| Kashmir IoA | October 26, 1947 | Signed by Maharaja Hari Singh; Indian troops airlifted to Srinagar |
| Operation Polo (Hyderabad) | September 13–17, 1948 | Police action; Hyderabad integrated; Sardar Patel oversaw (Nehru as PM) |
Women in Freedom Struggle:
- Annie Besant: First woman to preside over INC (1917, Calcutta session — overall first woman)
- Sarojini Naidu: First Indian woman INC president (1925, Kanpur session)
- Aruna Asaf Ali: "Grand Old Lady of Independence" — hoisted flag at QIM 1942
- Lakshmi Sahgal: Commanded Rani of Jhansi Regiment (INA)
- Begum Hazrat Mahal: 1857 Revolt leader (Lucknow)
Prelims trap: Annie Besant = first woman INC president overall (1917); Sarojini Naidu = first Indian woman (1925). Junagarh referendum = February 20, 1948 (NOT October 1947). Kashmir IoA = October 26, 1947. Patel integrated 562 princely states; Patel died December 1950 — Goa liberation (1961) was under Nehru.
Important Battles — High-Yield Table
| Battle | Date | Combatants | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| First Battle of Panipat | 1526 | Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi | Babur won (tulughma/gunpowder tactics); Delhi Sultanate ended; Mughal Empire founded |
| Second Battle of Panipat | November 5, 1556 | Akbar/Bairam Khan vs Hemu (Vikramaditya) | Hemu shot in eye by stray arrow; Mughal reconquest secured |
| Battle of Haldighati | June 18, 1576 | Akbar (Man Singh, Asaf Khan) vs Maharana Pratap | Inconclusive; Pratap escaped; never surrendered |
| Third Battle of Panipat | January 14, 1761 | Marathas (Sadashivrao Bhau, Vishwasrao) vs Ahmad Shah Durrani + Rohillas + Awadh | Durrani won; Sadashivrao Bhau + Vishwasrao killed; Maratha North India dominance ended |
| Battle of Plassey | June 23, 1757 | Robert Clive (EIC) vs Siraj-ud-Daulah | Mir Jafar betrayed Siraj; British political power established in Bengal |
| Battle of Buxar | October 22, 1764 | EIC (Munro) vs Mir Qasim + Shuja-ud-Daula + Shah Alam II | British won; Treaty of Allahabad — Diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa |
| Battle of Talikota | January 23, 1565 | Four Deccan Sultanates vs Vijayanagara (Rama Raya) | Rama Raya killed; Hampi sacked; Vijayanagara declined |
Prelims trap: Plassey = British political power; Buxar = consolidated it. 3rd Panipat Maratha commander = Sadashivrao Bhau (NOT Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao). Hemu at 2nd Panipat = only Hindu king on Delhi throne between Prithviraj III (1192) and Marathas. Battle of Talikota = January 23, 1565 (exact date).
Art, Culture & Architecture
Temple Architecture
| Feature | Nagara (North) | Dravida (South) | Vesara (Deccan) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Himalayas to Vindhyas | Krishna to Kaveri rivers | Vindhyas to Krishna |
| Main tower | Shikhara — curvilinear, beehive-shaped | Vimana — pyramidal tiers | Blend; often star-shaped plan |
| Gateway | No elaborate gateways | Gopuram — monumental gateway | Moderate |
| Dynasty | Chandela, Ganga, Gurjara-Pratihara | Pallava, Chola, Pandya, Nayak | Chalukya, Hoysala, Rashtrakuta |
Key temples:
- Khajuraho (MP; Chandela; 10th–11th c; UNESCO WHS) — Nagara; erotic sculptures = Tantric symbolism
- Konark Sun Temple (Odisha; Eastern Ganga; 13th c; UNESCO WHS) — Nagara; giant chariot of Sun God; 24 wheels; "Black Pagoda"
- Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur; Raja Raja Chola I; 1010 CE; 66 m vimana; UNESCO WHS) — Dravida
- Hoysaleswara + Chennakeshava (Halebidu/Belur, Karnataka; Hoysala; 12th c; UNESCO WHS 2023 — India's 42nd) — Vesara; intricate stellate plan
Prelims trap: Gopuram = entrance/gateway tower (Dravida). Shikhara = tower over sanctum (Nagara). Vimana = tower over sanctum (Dravida). Konark = Nagara style (not Dravida, despite being in Odisha). Hoysala temples = UNESCO WHS 2023 (42nd); Dholavira = 2021 (40th); Moidams = 2024 (43rd).
Indian Paintings
| Painting Style | Location / Period | Technique | Key Themes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ajanta | Maharashtra; 1st–7th c CE | Tempera on plaster (NOT fresco); natural pigments | Buddhist; Jataka tales; rediscovered 1819 by British officer John Smith |
| Mughal Miniature | Akbar's court onward | Paper; fine brush; Persian + Indian fusion | Hamzanama (Akbar's first project); Jahangir = detailed nature studies |
| Rajput/Rajasthani | Mewar, Kishangarh; 17th–18th c | Miniature; vivid colours | Kishangarh: Bani Thani (Nihal Chand) — called "Mona Lisa of India"; subject = Vishnupriya |
| Pahari | Himachal Pradesh; 17th–19th c | Miniature | Basohli (bold jewel colours); Kangra (delicate; Gita Govinda themes) |
| Madhubani/Mithila | Bihar | Natural colours; geometric | Hindu deities; weddings; women artists; GI Tag 2007 |
| Warli | Maharashtra (tribal) | White rice paste on red/brown | Tribal ceremonies; circular figures |
| Pattachitra | Odisha (Puri, Raghurajpur) | Cotton/silk; natural pigments | Jagannath cult; UNESCO Intangible Heritage (2018) |
| Thanjavur | Tamil Nadu; Nayak period | Wood panel; gold foil + semi-precious stones | Hindu deities; opulent |
Prelims trap: Ajanta = tempera (NOT fresco buono — dry plaster used). Bani Thani = Kishangarhi style; subject = Vishnupriya (court poet-singer, NOT a historical queen). Pattachitra = Odisha (patta = cloth). NOT to be confused with Bengal Patachitra (scroll painting).
Indian Classical Dance Forms
The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognises 8 classical dance forms. Sattriya = 8th, granted status November 15, 2000.
| Dance | State | Key Feature | Key Exponent |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bharatanatyam | Tamil Nadu | Devadasi temple tradition; Natya Shastra basis; revived by Rukmini Devi Arundale | T. Balasaraswati |
| Kathak | UP/Rajasthan | 3 gharanas: Jaipur (vigorous), Lucknow (lyrical), Benares (blend); Mughal influence | Birju Maharaj (Lucknow) |
| Odissi | Odisha | Tribhangi (thrice-bent) posture; poses from Konark carvings | Kelucharan Mohapatra |
| Kuchipudi | Andhra Pradesh | Village of Kuchipudi; originally Brahmin male performers only | Yamini Krishnamurthy |
| Manipuri | Manipur | No sharp footwork — gentle, gliding; Ras Lila of Krishna; Tagore introduced to mainland (1917) | Darshana Jhaveri |
| Mohiniyattam | Kerala | "Dance of enchantress"; white and gold costume; lasya (graceful) style; solo feminine | Sunanda Nair |
| Kathakali | Kerala | Elaborate make-up: Pacha (green = hero), Kathi (red streaks = villain), Kari (black = demon), Minukku (yellow = female); male performers | Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair |
| Sattriya | Assam | Founded 15th c by Srimanta Sankardeva; preserved in Vaishnavite satras; 8th and newest (recognised 2000) | Indira P.P. Bora |
Prelims trap: Exactly 8 classical dances (not 7 or 9). Sattriya = 2000 (8th). Chhau is NOT classical — semi-classical/tribal; UNESCO Intangible Heritage 2010; Mayurbhanj Chhau uses no mask (Purulia and Seraikella use masks). Manipuri = no strong footwork.
Indian Classical Music
| Feature | Hindustani (North) | Carnatic (South) |
|---|---|---|
| Influence | Persian/Mughal; more improvisation | Less Persian; composition-based |
| Core | Raga + Tala; elaborate alap | Raga + Tala; compositions called kriti |
| Key instruments | Sitar, sarod, tabla, sarangi | Veena (Saraswati), mridangam, violin |
| Oldest gharana | Gwalior (Hindustani) | — |
Carnatic Trinity (all born in Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu; early 19th c):
| Composer | Language | Speciality |
|---|---|---|
| Tyagaraja | Telugu + Sanskrit | Most prolific; Bhakti compositions |
| Muthuswami Dikshitar | Sanskrit | Scholarly; mantra-infused |
| Syama Sastri | Telugu + Sanskrit | Fewest compositions; most rhythmically refined |
Bharat Ratna awardees — Music:
- MS Subbulakshmi = first musician AND first woman to receive Bharat Ratna (1998)
- Pandit Bhimsen Joshi = Bharat Ratna 2009
- Ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai) = Bharat Ratna 2001
Prelims trap: MS Subbulakshmi = Bharat Ratna 1998 — first musician AND first woman. Gwalior = oldest Hindustani gharana. Carnatic Trinity all born in Thiruvarur.
Folk and Tribal Arts
| Art Form | State(s) | Type | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chhau | WB (Purulia), Jharkhand (Seraikella), Odisha (Mayurbhanj) | Semi-classical/tribal dance | 3 sub-styles; UNESCO ICH 2010; Purulia + Seraikella use masks; Mayurbhanj uses NO mask |
| Yakshagana | Coastal Karnataka | Folk theatre | Overnight performances; mythology |
| Theyyam | Northern Kerala | Ritual art | 400+ forms; performer becomes deity; performed at kavus (sacred groves) |
| Jatra | West Bengal | Folk theatre | Originally Vaishnavite devotional; later secular |
Indian Martial Arts
| Martial Art | State | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Kalaripayattu | Kerala | Oldest Indian martial art; Sangam references (600 BCE–300 CE); banned by British 1804; revived 1920s |
| Silambam | Tamil Nadu | Staff/stick fighting; Sangam references; GI Tag |
| Thang-ta | Manipur | Sword (thang) + spear (ta); Meitei martial art |
| Gatka | Punjab/Sikh | Sword and shield; Sikh warrior tradition; Gurpurabs |
| Mardaani Khel | Maharashtra | Stick and sword; Maratha warriors |
Prelims trap: Kalaripayattu = Kerala (not Tamil Nadu). Silambam = staff fighting (not sword). Thang-ta = Manipur (not Thoda of Himachal Pradesh — archery-based).
2025–26 Current Affairs: History and Heritage
| Development | Date | Key Details | Prelims Angle |
|---|---|---|---|
| Moidams (Charaideo, Assam) — UNESCO WHS 43rd | July 26, 2024 | Royal mound-burial necropolis of the Tai-Ahom dynasty; 90 moidams; 46th WHC session held in New Delhi (first time India hosted); first cultural heritage site from NE India on UNESCO WHS list | India's 43rd UNESCO WHS; Ahom ruled Assam ~600 years |
| Maratha Military Landscapes — UNESCO WHS 44th | July 11, 2025 | 12 forts: 11 in Maharashtra + Gingee Fort (Tamil Nadu); 47th WHC session, Paris | India's 44th; Gingee = only fort outside Maharashtra |
| Keezhadi Excavation — Phase 10 | June 2024 – 2025 | Tamil-Brahmi graffiti pottery; brick walls; Sangam-age origins pushed to 800 BCE; ASI controversy over excavator K. Amarnath Ramakrishna's transfer | Keezhadi = Vaigai River, near Madurai; 6th c BCE urban settlement |
| Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 (UMEED Act) | Passed April 4, 2025 | Non-Muslim reps in Waqf Boards; government land review; removes Section 40; reduces contribution 7% → 5%; SC put two provisions in abeyance | Original Waqf Act = 1954; also called UMEED Act |
| Operation Sindoor | May 7, 2025 | IAF airstrikes on 9 JeM + LeT sites in Pakistan and PoK; 23 minutes; ceasefire May 10; preceded by Pahalgam attack (April 22, 2025 — 26 civilians killed); India suspended Indus Waters Treaty April 23 | TRF (Lashkar-e-Taiba proxy); IWT first-ever suspension (treaty since 1960) |
Prelims trap: Moidams = 43rd WHS; Maratha forts = 44th. Maratha WHS = 12 forts (not 11; Gingee = 12th). Keezhadi = Vaigai River (not Kaveri). Waqf Act 2025 = also called UMEED Act. Hoysala temples = India's 42nd WHS (2023).
