UPSC Prelims 2026 Current Affairs Revision — Day 7: Reports, Summits & Appointments

Time needed: 3–4 hours  |  High-yield rating: ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (15–20 questions per paper)

International Summits (2023–2025)

G20

Prelims trap: African Union joined G20 at the 2023 New Delhi Summit — G20 is now 21 members (19 countries + EU + AU). AU represents 55 African states but is itself ONE member of G20.

SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation)

• India hosted SCO Summit 2023 virtually (July 4, 2023); PM Modi chaired; Pakistan PM Shehbaz Sharif + China's Xi Jinping attended via video link
• SCO members: 10 (China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan + Iran — 2023 + Belarus — 2024)
• HQ: Beijing; working languages: Chinese + Russian

BRICS

• Effective January 1, 2024: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, UAE joined (invited at 2023 Johannesburg Summit)
• Saudi Arabia: did not join — membership decision deferred (not formally declined)
• BRICS 2024 Summit: Kazan, Russia (October 2024); theme: "Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development and Security"
• BRICS 2025: Brazil (chair)

Climate (UNFCCC)

Prelims trap: Loss and Damage Fund = COP27. "Transition away" from fossil fuels = COP28 (NOT "phase out"). $300 billion climate finance = COP29.

India — Constitutional & Legal (2023–2024)

Important Appointments (2024–2026)

Economy (2024–2026)

Environment (2024–2026)

Prelims trap: Tamil Nadu has the most Ramsar sites (20). UP is 2nd with 12. Shekha Jheel (April 2026) brought UP's count to 12 — but TN still leads overall.

Prelims trap: Similipal became India's 107th National Park (not 106th) in April 2025.

Defence & Security (2024–2025)

Operation Sindoor — 9 targets (for Prelims):

International reaction: US VP Vance initially called it "none of our business"; Trump announced ceasefire on May 10 (claimed mediator role — India rejected this, called ceasefire bilateral). UK, Israel, Saudi Arabia, UAE, EU supported India's right to counter terrorism. UN called for "maximum restraint."

Prelims trap: Operation Sindoor = May 7, 2025 (day of strikes). Ceasefire = May 10, 2025. Indus Waters Treaty (1960) suspended April 23, 2025. BrahMos + SCALP + HAMMER weapons used; S-400 deployed for air defence.

Space & Technology (2023–2025)

Technology Milestones (2025)

New Schemes (2024)

Reports & Rankings (2024–2025)

Awards (2024–2025)

Sports (2023–2025)

Prelims trap: Neeraj Chopra won silver (not gold) at Paris 2024 — Arshad Nadeem (Pakistan) won gold (92.97 m). Gukesh D is the youngest-ever FIDE World Chess Champion. India won ICC Champions Trophy 2025 in Dubai (India-Pakistan matches held in UAE, not Pakistan, due to India's refusal to travel to Pakistan). India's Women's ODI World Cup 2025 = India's first-ever Women's World Cup title.

India — Foreign Relations

More Current Affairs 2025–26

International Summits & Bilateral Agreements

Prelims trap: SCO 2025 was held in Tianjin, China (not Beijing). SCO 2023 was hosted virtually by India (PM Modi chaired); SCO 2024 was in Astana, Kazakhstan. The theme "Shanghai Spirit" refers to the founding principles of the SCO — mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality, consultation, respect for cultural diversity, and pursuit of common development.

Prelims trap: The 2025 G20 summit (Johannesburg, South Africa) was the first G20 summit ever held on the African continent. South Africa's presidency was the fourth consecutive presidency by a Global South country (India 2023 → Brazil 2024 → South Africa 2025). The US boycotted the summit (Trump administration cited South Africa's land reform policy); Argentina attended but was the only G20 member to refuse signing the 122-point final declaration.

Awards & Honours 2025

Prelims trap: No Bharat Ratna was awarded in 2025. The Bharat Ratna is India's highest civilian honour — it is not awarded every year. The last round (2024) awarded 5 in one year, the most ever in a single year.

New Schemes & Programmes (2025–26)

Prelims trap: SWAMIH Fund 2 (₹15,000 crore, Budget 2025-26) is distinct from SWAMIH Fund 1 (launched 2019 for the same purpose but smaller scale). Both are for completing stalled real estate projects.

India — Demographic Snapshot 2025

Prelims trap: India's TFR (1.975) is now below the replacement level of 2.1 — meaning India's population growth is slowing. India will still be the most populous country for several decades due to population momentum, but long-term aging trends are beginning.

Prelims trap: The India Census 2021 was delayed due to COVID-19 and is now rescheduled for 2026–27 — Phase 2 (demographic data collection) expected February 2027. This means no fresh census-based data for several years.

Updated Rankings — Comparison Table

Prelims trap: India's HDI rank in the 2025 Human Development Report is 130/193 — not 132 or 134. The HDR 2025 uses 2023 data. India's HDI value is 0.685 — still in "Medium Human Development" category (just below the 0.700 threshold for "High").

Prelims trap: India's Press Freedom Index 2025 rank is 151/180 (Reporters Without Borders / RSF) — an improvement from 159 in 2024. The 2026 RSF Index (released May 2026) shows India at 157/180 — a drop of 6 places.

Operation Sindoor — Extended Prelims Module

The Defence section above covers the core dates and targets. This section adds the diplomatic/legal dimensions high-yield for Prelims.

Post-Sindoor Diplomatic Measures

Prelims trap — IWT legal angles:

• IWT signed September 19, 1960; brokered by the World Bank; allocated eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) → India; western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) → Pakistan
• India invoked Article 62 VCLT (rebus sic stantibus — fundamental change of circumstances); India is not a signatory to VCLT (this is a counter-argument Pakistan can raise)
• IWT has no unilateral exit clause — Article IX requires parties to exhaust dispute-resolution mechanisms first (Permanent Indus Commission → neutral expert → arbitration at Hague)
• India termed suspension as placing treaty "in abeyance" (not formal termination); IWT remains suspended as of May 2026

Bangladesh Political Crisis (2024–2026)

Prelims trap: Muhammad Yunus received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 (not Economics) — for founding Grameen Bank (1983) and pioneering the concept of microcredit. His title in Bangladesh's interim government was "Chief Adviser" (not Prime Minister — Bangladesh has a parliamentary system where the PM leads; the interim setup used "Chief Adviser"). The protest was against the 30% freedom fighter descendants' quota in civil services, not against any other quota.

State Assembly Elections 2024–25 — Complete Table

Delhi and J&K are covered in the Constitutional section above. This table covers the remaining major elections.

Prelims trap: In Maharashtra, BJP alone won 132 seats (largest single-party haul) — Mahayuti total was 235/288. The MVA (Maha Vikas Aghadi = Congress + Shiv Sena UBT + NCP SP) won only 50 seats — one of the worst-ever defeats for the opposition. In Haryana, BJP's victory defied exit polls that had predicted a Congress win; Nayab Singh Saini is from OBC community (Teli) — first OBC CM of Haryana.

International Affairs — Missing Topics

Israel-Gaza

Prelims trap: The ICJ case is a Genocide Convention case — not the Rome Statute / ICC (International Criminal Court). ICJ ≠ ICC. ICJ handles state-vs-state disputes; ICC prosecutes individuals. Both are at The Hague. The ceasefire mediators were Qatar + Egypt + USA (not the UN or Russia).

Russia-Ukraine War — 2025 Developments

Prelims trap: The Russia-Ukraine conflict began with Russia's full-scale invasion on February 24, 2022 (following the 2014 Crimea annexation). Ukraine is not a NATO member — this is a core Russian demand in any settlement. India buys discounted Russian crude under a waiver arrangement from its Western partners.

Syria — Assad's Fall (December 2024)

Prelims trap: HTS = Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (previously known as Jabhat al-Nusra — a former Al-Qaeda affiliate; al-Sharaa distanced HTS from Al-Qaeda). Assad fled to Russia (not Turkey or Iran). Syria's civil war began in 2011 — Assad had survived for 13 years before the December 2024 collapse.

Myanmar

Prelims trap: India-Myanmar FMR was scrapped on February 8, 2024 — not 2023. The FMR covered 16 km on each side (sometimes stated as "within 16 km"). India shares its longest land border with Bangladesh (4,156 km); Myanmar border is 1,643 km (passes through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram).

Sri Lanka

Prelims trap: AKD's formal party is JVP (Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna), but the electoral coalition is NPP (National People's Power) — a broader alliance. The presidential election was September 21, 2024; parliamentary election was November 14, 2024. Sri Lanka's economic crisis was triggered by forex reserve depletion + COVID-19 + debt — the 2022 Aragalaya uprising ousted President Gotabaya Rajapaksa.

Reports & Rankings — Additional Entries

Prelims trap: In the World Happiness Report 2025, India ranked 118th — a significant improvement from 126th in the 2024 report. Finland has been ranked No. 1 for 8 consecutive years (2018–2025). The report ranks countries based on Gallup World Poll data: life evaluations (Cantril ladder), GDP per capita, social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom, generosity, and corruption perceptions.

Prelims trap: The SIPRI Military Expenditure Report 2025 (released April 2026, covering calendar year 2025 data) showed India at 5th place globally — up from 6th in 2024. India overtook the United Kingdom. Global military spending hit $2,887 billion in 2025 — the 11th consecutive year of increase.

Prelims trap: The World Bank Ease of Doing Business index was discontinued in September 2021 — do not cite post-2020 EoDB ranks. It was replaced by the Business Ready (B-READY) framework. This is a frequent UPSC trap where candidates may expect a current EoDB rank — there is none.

Key International Appointments (Updated May 2026)

Prelims trap: Valdecy Urquiza replaced Jürgen Stock as INTERPOL SG in November 2024 — Stock had completed two full terms (10 years). Urquiza is from Brazil — a notable shift from European dominance of the post. INTERPOL HQ: Lyon, France. WHO DG Tedros's 2nd term ends August 2027 — election for his successor is underway.

India — Key Appointments (Updated May 2026)

Prelims trap: India's Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) post was created on January 1, 2020 — first CDS was General Bipin Rawat (died in helicopter crash December 8, 2021); second CDS is General Anil Chauhan (Sep 2022–May 2026); third CDS will be Lt Gen NS Raja Subramani from May 31, 2026. CDS also serves as Secretary, Department of Military Affairs (DMA) under the Ministry of Defence.

Prelims trap: The 53rd CJI is Justice Surya Kant (not B.R. Gavai — Gavai was 52nd). Justice Surya Kant is the first CJI from Haryana. B.R. Gavai was notable as only the second CJI from the Scheduled Caste community (after Justice KG Balakrishnan, who retired 2010).

Current Affairs Hooks That Test Static Concepts

UPSC paper-setters use a recent event to test the underlying static constitutional/legal/treaty concept. This section maps the hook to the underlying concept.

Operation Sindoor Hook → Indus Waters Treaty 1960

The hook: India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) on April 23, 2025, after the Pahalgam terror attack.

What UPSC tests — IWT static facts:

Prelims trap: IWT was brokered by the World Bank — not UN or USA. The eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) go to India; western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) go to Pakistan. India has built run-of-the-river hydropower on western rivers (Baglihar, Kishanganga) — these are permitted but contested.

16th Finance Commission Hook → Article 280

The hook: 16th Finance Commission (FC-XVI) chaired by Dr Arvind Panagariya submitted its report on November 17, 2025.

What UPSC tests — Finance Commission static facts:

Prelims trap: Article 280 constitutes Finance Commission — NOT Article 279. Finance Commission is a constitutional body (not statutory, not permanent). It is reconstituted every 5 years — it is not a permanent body. The Finance Commission recommends; the Union Cabinet accepts or modifies — it is not automatically binding.

ONOE (One Nation One Election) Hook → Key Constitutional Articles

The hook: Kovind Committee report (March 14, 2024) recommended simultaneous elections.

What UPSC tests — ONOE constitutional framework:

Prelims trap: ONOE requires amendment of Articles 83 and 172 + insertion of new Article 82A — a total of 18 constitutional amendments according to the Kovind Committee. Phase 1 amendments do not require state ratification; Phase 2 (local bodies) may require state legislation.

Waqf Amendment Act 2025 Hook → Waqf Board Static Concept

The hook: Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 passed April 4, 2025; President's assent April 5, 2025; officially renamed UMEED Act.

What UPSC tests — Waqf static framework:

Prelims trap: Waqf Boards are statutory bodies — NOT constitutional bodies. Central Waqf Council is under Ministry of Minority Affairs — NOT Ministry of Law or Home Ministry. Article 26 (freedom to manage religious affairs) is the primary constitutional challenge — NOT Article 25 (freedom of religion, which is individual).

DPDP Act 2023 Hook → Data Protection and Privacy Rights

The hook: Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 (DPDP Act) passed August 2023; rules being notified; Data Protection Board being constituted.

What UPSC tests — DPDP static framework:

Prelims trap: The Data Protection Board is an adjudicatory body — it hears grievances and imposes fines; it is NOT a sectoral regulator making policy (unlike SEBI or TRAI). The constitutional underpinning is Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty), expanded to include privacy in Puttaswamy 2017. India's previous Personal Data Protection Bill 2019 was withdrawn in 2022 — DPDP Act 2023 is the operative law.

India — Major Legislative Reforms (Static Tests)

Criminal Law Reforms — BNS, BNSS, BSA (Effective July 1, 2024)

Three colonial-era criminal laws were replaced by new legislation. All three received Presidential assent on December 25, 2023 (Lok Sabha: December 20; Rajya Sabha: December 21) and came into force July 1, 2024:

Hindi name meanings (Prelims favourite): "Nyaya" = Justice; "Nagarik Suraksha" = Citizen Protection; "Sakshya" = Evidence; "Adhiniyam" = Act/Statute; "Sanhita" = Code/Compendium.

Key changes in BNS — section-wise:

Key changes in BNSS — section-wise:

Key changes in BSA:

Prelims traps — read carefully:

1. Effective date vs assent date: Presidential assent = December 25, 2023; effective = July 1, 2024. Questions often conflate these two dates.

2. Hindi names — exact terms matter: BNS = Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (NOT "Nyaya Dand Sanhita" — the originally proposed name was changed); BNSS = Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (Nagarik = citizen, Suraksha = protection); BSA = Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (NOT "Sakshya Sanhita" — this law is titled "Adhiniyam" not "Sanhita").

3. IEA had 167 sections (not 166): The BSA has 170 sections replacing the IEA's 167 — net addition of 3 sections.

4. Sedition is NOT renamed: Section 124A IPC used the word "sedition." Section 152 BNS does not use the word "sedition" at all — it criminalises secession, armed rebellion, and subversive activities. Critics call it "Sedition 2.0" because it is arguably broader than the original.

5. UAPA vs BNS terrorism: UAPA (Unlawful Activities Prevention Act) still exists and is the primary anti-terror law. BNS Section 113 adds terrorism to the general penal code — both coexist; UAPA offences are tried by designated NIA courts.

6. Forensic mandatory = 7 years, not 3 or 5: Section 176(3) threshold is offences with punishment of 7 years or more — a common trap that substitutes different year thresholds.

7. 90-day chargesheet = only for life/death offences: For lesser offences the deadline is 60 days, not 90. The 90/60 distinction is a standard MCQ trap.

8. Zero FIR existed before BNSS but only as a judicial direction; BNSS Section 173 makes it a statutory right for the first time.

Uttarakhand — First State to Implement UCC (January 27, 2025)

• Uttarakhand Uniform Civil Code Act, 2024: Passed by Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly February 2024; President's assent March 11, 2024; rules notified and implemented January 27, 2025
• Uttarakhand became the first state in independent India to implement a UCC
• What it covers: Marriage (mandatory registration within 60 days), divorce, inheritance and succession, adoption — uniform provisions across all religions (except tribes, who are exempt)
• Constitutional basis: Article 44 (Directive Principle) — "State shall endeavour to secure for citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India"; UCC is a DPSP, not enforceable, but not prohibited
• Article 371 exemption: Tribal communities (Scheduled Tribes under Article 342) are exempt from Uttarakhand UCC provisions
• Supreme Court challenge: Several petitions filed; SC agreed to hear constitutionality challenges

Prelims trap: Uttarakhand UCC implemented January 27, 2025 — NOT merely passed or assented to. It is the first state in independent India to implement UCC (Goa has its own Portuguese Civil Code from colonial era, but that is not the same as a post-independence UCC). Article 44 is a DPSP — implementing UCC is a state's right, not an obligation. Scheduled Tribes are exempt from the Uttarakhand UCC.

Sports — Paris Olympics 2024 (Detailed Tally)

India won 6 medals at the Paris 2024 Summer Olympics (July 26–August 11, 2024) — 1 silver + 5 bronze. India finished 71st in the overall medals table.

Vinesh Phogat disqualification:

• Vinesh Phogat reached the gold medal final in women's 50kg wrestling after stunning upsets (including defending Olympic champion Susaki of Japan)
• Disqualified on August 7, 2024 (day of the final) for being 100 grams overweight at the morning weigh-in for the gold medal bout
• Filed appeal with Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) seeking a shared silver medal; appeal rejected by CAS
• Announced retirement from wrestling immediately after the Paris Games
• India's medal tally would have been 7 had Vinesh won any medal

Prelims trap: India finished with 6 medals (1 silver, 5 bronze) at Paris 2024 — its 3rd-best Olympics ever (behind Tokyo 2021: 7 medals; London 2012: 6 medals including 2 silver). Neeraj won silver (NOT gold) — Arshad Nadeem won gold. Manu Bhaker was first Indian woman to win an Olympic shooting medal. Vinesh Phogat was disqualified — 100 grams over 50kg limit.

Events & Conventions (Current Affairs Hooks)

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) 2025 — 18th Convention

Prelims trap: PBD 2025 was held in Bhubaneswar, Odisha — not Delhi or Varanasi. Theme = "Diaspora's Contribution to a Viksit Bharat." The convention is held every two years (biennial) — not annually. It is organised by Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), not Ministry of Culture.

Major Global Conflicts (2020–2026)

UPSC tests conflicts through: India's position, UN resolutions, humanitarian impact, peace processes, and which international bodies were involved.

1. Russia-Ukraine War (February 2022 – Present)

Background: Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022. This is distinct from 2014: Russia annexed Crimea in March 2014 and backed separatists in Donbas from 2014 onwards — but 2022 was a direct, large-scale multi-front military invasion. Russia claims annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts (Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, Kherson) following September 2022 "referendums" — condemned internationally.

Prelims trap: India abstained on all UNGA Ukraine resolutions — it did not vote against Russia nor did it vote with Western-sponsored resolutions. The 2014 Crimea annexation and the 2022 full-scale invasion are separate events — UPSC distinguishes them chronologically. Ukraine is not a NATO member — this is both Russia's casus belli and a key sticking point in peace talks.

Prelims trap: The Black Sea Grain Initiative was brokered by the UN and Turkey (not USA, not EU) — signed July 22, 2022; Russia withdrew July 17, 2023. The ZNPP is under Russian military control; IAEA monitors but does not control it.

2. Israel-Gaza War (October 7, 2023 – Present)

Background: Hamas launched a coordinated land, sea, and air attack from Gaza on October 7, 2023, killing approximately 1,195 Israelis and foreign nationals and taking 251 hostages — the deadliest day for Israel since its founding. Israel declared war on Hamas on October 8, 2023, and launched a ground invasion of Gaza.

Prelims trap: ICJ and ICC are both at The Hague but are entirely different institutions. ICJ (International Court of Justice) = state-vs-state, UN principal judicial organ. ICC (International Criminal Court) = prosecutes individuals for war crimes/crimes against humanity, established by Rome Statute. South Africa filed at the ICJ under the Genocide Convention; the ICC issued the Netanyahu warrant. Do not confuse.

Prelims trap: Ceasefire Phase 1 mediators = USA + Qatar + Egypt (NOT the UN or UNSC). Effective date = January 19, 2025 (announced January 15).

Prelims trap: India's vote was not uniform — it abstained on some UNGA resolutions but voted in favour of the December 2023 humanitarian ceasefire resolution. India voted differently from BRICS partners (most BRICS countries voted for resolutions India abstained on).

3. Sudan Civil War (April 2023 – Present)

Background: Fighting erupted on April 15, 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF — led by Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF — paramilitary, led by Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, "Hemedti"). The RSF evolved from the Janjaweed militias responsible for the 2003–08 Darfur genocide.

Prelims trap: Operation Kaveri (Sudan, April–May 2023) evacuated ~4,000 people. Distinguish from Operation Ganga (Ukraine, 2022) and Operation Devi Shakti (Afghanistan, 2021). Sudan = world's largest displacement crisis (UNHCR 2024).

Prelims trap: RSF originated from the Janjaweed militias — the same group responsible for Darfur genocide. Conflict started April 15, 2023 — not 2024. UAE backs RSF; Egypt backs SAF — this external dimension is UPSC-relevant.

4. Myanmar Civil War (February 2021 – Present)

Background: The Myanmar military (Tatmadaw / SAC — State Administration Council) seized power in a coup on February 1, 2021, detaining State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi and the elected NLD government. Peaceful protests were met with lethal force, leading to armed resistance.

Prelims trap: Myanmar coup = February 1, 2021. Operation 1027 launched October 27, 2023 (date = name). ASEAN's Five-Point Consensus is widely regarded as failed — the junta has not implemented any of its five provisions.

Prelims trap: India scrapped the Free Movement Regime (FMR) on February 8, 2024 (not 2023). The FMR covered 16 km on each side. India shares 1,643 km of border with Myanmar across Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.

5. Yemen Civil War (2014/2015 – Present) and Houthi Red Sea Crisis (2023 – Present)

Background: Houthi forces (Ansar Allah, backed by Iran) seized Yemen's capital Sanaa in 2014–2015. Saudi Arabia launched a military coalition to restore the internationally recognised government (March 2015). A UN-brokered truce (April 2022) reduced fighting but was never formalised into a peace agreement. The conflict gained renewed global attention when Houthis began attacking Red Sea shipping in November 2023.

Prelims trap: India did not join Operation Prosperity Guardian — it deployed warships independently to protect Indian interests. Red Sea attacks began November 19, 2023 (not January 2024). January 2024 = when US-UK airstrikes on Houthis began. The May 2025 ceasefire was brokered by Oman — not Qatar, not the UN.

6. Ethiopia-Tigray War (November 2020 – November 2022) and Pretoria Agreement

Background: War erupted in November 2020 when Ethiopian federal forces (under PM Abiy Ahmed) — joined by Eritrean forces and Amhara militias — attacked the Tigray region, then controlled by the TPLF (Tigray People's Liberation Front, the former ruling party of Ethiopia until 2018).

Prelims trap: The Pretoria Agreement was brokered by the African Union (AU) — signed November 2, 2022, in Pretoria, South Africa. Death toll = 300,000–600,000 (cite as a range — UPSC may test which war caused this scale of loss). Do not confuse with the Sudan-Darfur genocide (2003–08) — those are separate conflicts in separate countries.

7. Taiwan Strait Tensions (2022 – Present)

Background: Taiwan (Republic of China) has governed separately from the People's Republic of China since 1949. The PRC claims Taiwan as its territory. The US maintains "strategic ambiguity" — supporting Taiwan's self-defence without formally recognising it as a sovereign state.

Prelims trap: India has deliberately avoided the phrase "One China policy" since 2008–2009 — this is a significant policy signal. India maintains economic and technology ties with Taiwan through the TECC (Taipei Economic and Cultural Center) — not a formal embassy. Do not conflate Taiwan Strait tensions with the South China Sea disputes — they are separate issues.

8. South China Sea Disputes (Ongoing)

Background: Multiple countries assert overlapping territorial claims in the South China Sea. China's sweeping claim based on the "Nine-Dash Line" was rejected by an UNCLOS arbitral tribunal in 2016.

Prelims trap: The 2016 South China Sea arbitration was conducted by the PCA (Permanent Court of Arbitration) under UNCLOS Annex VII — it is not an ICJ case. The ruling is binding on both parties under UNCLOS, but China refuses to comply and has built artificial islands on disputed features.

Prelims trap: Scarborough Shoal and Second Thomas Shoal are different locations. Scarborough = seized by China in 2012; used for Chinese fishing. Second Thomas = Philippines holds BRP Sierra Madre there; China blocks resupply missions — this is the active flashpoint as of 2023–24.

Prelims trap: India endorsed the 2016 arbitral award explicitly in its July 2023 India-Philippines joint statement — this is a policy change from previous ambiguity and is UPSC-relevant.

9. India-Pakistan: Pahalgam Attack and Operation Sindoor (April–May 2025)

Full details are in the Defence and Security section and the Operation Sindoor Extended Module above. This is a cross-reference summary.

10. Armenia-Azerbaijan / Nagorno-Karabakh (2023 Offensive and 2025 Peace Deal)

Background: Armenia and Azerbaijan fought two wars over Nagorno-Karabakh (an Armenian-majority enclave inside Azerbaijan): First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988–1994, Armenia won) and Second (44-day war, September–November 2020, Azerbaijan won with Turkish drone support). A Russian-brokered November 2020 ceasefire left Russian peacekeepers in the region.

Prelims trap: The ~100,400 figure refers to ethnic Armenians who fled Nagorno-Karabakh — not Armenia proper. The OSCE Minsk Group (co-chaired by France, Russia, USA since 1994) has been dissolved under the August 2025 peace deal. Russia's traditional role as mediator was effectively bypassed — the Trump-brokered White House deal marks a shift in the regional power dynamic.

Prelims trap: The transit route agreed under the August 2025 deal is formally named TRIPP — "Trump Route for International Peace and Prosperity." This is the corridor from Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan exclave through Armenian territory — Azerbaijan calls it the "Zangezur corridor."

Quick Reference: Major Global Conflicts (2020–2026)