Capital Markets, Insurance & Financial Inclusion

Capital Markets Overview

Capital markets channel long-term savings into productive investment. They complement the banking system by offering alternative avenues for raising and deploying funds.

Primary vs Secondary Market

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)

Composition of the SEBI Board

The board has 9 members:

• 1 Chairman — nominated by the Union Government
• 2 members from the Union Ministry of Finance
• 1 member from the Reserve Bank of India
• 5 members nominated by the Union Government (at least 3 must be full-time)

Core Functions of SEBI

Recent SEBI Reforms

Stock Exchanges

Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)

National Stock Exchange (NSE)

India's total stock market capitalisation stood at approximately USD 5,092 billion in February 2026 (CEIC Data), making it one of the largest equity markets globally.

Mutual Funds and Bonds

Mutual Fund Industry

The rise of SIP (Systematic Investment Plan) culture has been a transformative development. Monthly SIP contributions have surged from a few thousand crore in the mid-2010s to over Rs. 31,000 crore by end-2025, reflecting deepening retail participation.

Government Securities (G-Secs)

• Debt instruments issued by the Central or State Governments to finance fiscal deficits
• Treasury Bills (T-Bills): Short-term (91, 182, 364 days) — issued at a discount, redeemed at par
• Dated securities: Long-term bonds with fixed or floating coupon rates
• RBI conducts auctions for G-Sec issuance; traded on NDS-OM (Negotiated Dealing System — Order Matching)

Sovereign Gold Bonds (SGBs)

Existing SGBs continue to be traded on exchanges and will mature as per their original terms.

Insurance Sector

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI)

Insurance Penetration and Density

FDI Limit in Insurance

LIC IPO (May 2022)

Ayushman Bharat — Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB PM-JAY)

Pension Reforms

National Pension System (NPS)

Atal Pension Yojana (APY)

Employees' Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO)

Formal pension coverage in India still encompasses less than 25% of the workforce, underscoring the importance of schemes like APY for the vast unorganised sector.

Financial Inclusion

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

Unified Payments Interface (UPI)

UPI's dominance in India's retail digital payments ecosystem (80-90% share) has fundamentally shifted consumer behaviour towards cashless transactions.

Micro-Insurance Schemes

• PMJJBY: 26.88 crore cumulative enrolments (as of 2025)
• PMSBY: 57.11 crore cumulative enrolments (as of 2025)

These low-premium schemes, linked to Jan Dhan accounts, have significantly expanded the insurance net for low-income households.

Recent Structural Reforms

Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016

A key challenge remains timeline adherence — 78% of ongoing CIRP cases had exceeded the 270-day limit as of March 2025.

Account Aggregator (AA) Framework

The AA framework is a critical layer in India's digital public infrastructure stack (Aadhaar-UPI-AA), enabling paperless, consent-driven access to credit — particularly beneficial for MSMEs and underserved borrowers.

GIFT City — International Financial Services Centre (IFSC)

UPSC Relevance

Prelims focus areas:

• SEBI — establishment year, statutory status, composition, functions
• BSE vs NSE — founding years, benchmark indices
• NPS — launch year, extension to all citizens, regulator (PFRDA)
• FDI limit changes in insurance (26% to 49% to 74% to 100%)
• PMJDY features, PMJJBY vs PMSBY
• IBC — enactment year, CIRP timeline, IBBI
• UPI — launched by NPCI, transaction milestones

Mains approach:

• Capital market reforms and their role in economic growth
• Financial inclusion: achievements of Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) trinity
• Insurance penetration gap and policy measures to bridge it
• IBC's effectiveness: recovery rates, timeline challenges, and impact on credit culture
• Digital public infrastructure (Aadhaar-UPI-AA stack) as a model for developing countries
• Pension reforms and the challenge of old-age social security for the unorganised sector

Recent Developments (2024–2026)

SEBI Reforms 2024-25 — Mutual Fund Regulations Overhauled

SEBI approved the SEBI (Mutual Funds) Regulations, 2026 in December 2025, replacing the 1996 regulations with a simplified 88-page document (down from 162 pages). Key changes: (1) Expense ratio reductions — Index Funds/ETFs capped at 0.90% (from 1.00%), close-ended equity schemes at 1.00% (from 1.25%); (2) Brokerage caps halved — cash market transactions from 12 bps to 6 bps, derivatives from 5 bps to 2 bps; (3) Passive fund sponsor restrictions — passive funds cannot invest more than 25% of AUM in sponsor group companies; (4) Second scheme in same category permitted if existing scheme has AUM >Rs. 50,000 crore and is >5 years old.

India's mutual fund industry average AUM reached approximately Rs. 82 lakh crore in December 2025 (AMFI monthly data), up ~18% from December 2024's ~Rs. 68.6 lakh crore, with systematic investment plans (SIPs) recording an all-time monthly high of Rs. 31,002 crore in December 2025. Equity-oriented AUM now constitutes approximately 55% of total industry AUM, reflecting a structural shift in household savings toward financial assets.

UPSC angle: SEBI's new Mutual Fund Regulations 2026, the AUM milestone (~Rs. 82 lakh crore avg AUM Dec 2025), monthly SIP inflows (Rs. 31,002 crore Dec 2025), and SEBI's role as the capital market regulator (established under SEBI Act 1992) are direct Prelims facts.

Indian Stock Markets — Record Highs and Retail Investor Surge

The BSE Sensex crossed 85,000 in September 2024 (all-time high), driven by strong corporate earnings, FII inflows, and domestic SIP-driven retail participation. India's market capitalisation briefly exceeded $5 trillion (peak: $5.66 trillion in September 2024). After a correction of ~14–22% through March 2026, India's market cap recovered to approximately $4.87 trillion by April 2026, ranking it the 4th largest equity market globally — ahead of Hong Kong and the UK.

Retail investor participation surged: unique registered investors (demat account holders) crossed 17 crore by 2025. The SEBI introduced T+0 settlement (same-day settlement for selected stocks) alongside the existing T+1 settlement cycle — making India one of the fastest-settling markets globally. F&O (Futures and Options) trading also grew exponentially, prompting SEBI to introduce stricter margin requirements for retail options traders in 2024 to protect unsophisticated investors.

UPSC angle: India 4th largest equity market by April 2026 (~$4.87 trillion), demat accounts (17 crore), T+0 settlement introduction, and SEBI's F&O retail regulation (2024) reflect capital market depth and inclusion — relevant for Mains GS3 on financial sector development.

FDI in Insurance — Raised to 100%, Bima Sugam Marketplace Launched

Union Budget 2025-26 raised FDI in insurance to 100% (from 74%) for companies that invest all premiums within India — expected to attract long-term foreign capital and technology. This was followed by the Insurance Laws (Amendment) Bill (introduced in Parliament, December 2025) which also proposes composite licences (allowing a single entity to offer life + non-life insurance) and simplification of product approvals (from "use and file" to "file and use" model).

Bima Sugam — IRDAI's one-stop digital insurance marketplace — saw the Bima Sugam India Federation officially launched on 17 September 2025 at IRDAI Hyderabad, with the transactional Phase 1 going live in December 2025, allowing policyholders, insurers, and agents to compare, buy, manage, and settle claims for life, health, motor, and other insurance on a single platform. India's insurance penetration remains at 3.7% of GDP (FY2024-25 per IRDAI Annual Report), with life insurance at 2.7% and non-life at 1.0% — still well below the global average of ~7%, indicating significant growth potential.

UPSC angle: 100% FDI in insurance (Budget 2025-26), Bima Sugam launch (September 2025), composite insurance licence proposal, and India's insurance penetration (3.7% — below world average of 7%) are high-probability Prelims facts and Mains discussion points.

Vocabulary

Equity

• Pronunciation: /ˈɛk.wɪ.ti/
• Definition: The ownership interest in a company represented by shares of stock, or more broadly, the residual value of an asset after deducting all liabilities associated with it.
• Origin: From Middle English equitee, from Old French equité, from Latin aequitās ("fairness, equality"), from aequus ("even, fair"); entered English around 1315.

Debenture

• Pronunciation: /dɪˈbɛn.tʃər/
• Definition: A long-term debt instrument issued by a company or government, bearing a fixed rate of interest and usually unsecured, that acknowledges a debt owed to the holder.
• Origin: From Latin dēbentur ("there are owing"), the third-person plural passive of dēbēre ("to owe"); used in English since the mid-15th century, originally as the opening word of such debt certificates.

Underwriting

• Pronunciation: /ˈʌn.dəˌɹaɪ.tɪŋ/
• Definition: The process by which a financial institution (bank, insurer, or investment house) assesses and assumes the risk of guaranteeing the sale of a securities issue or the coverage of an insurance policy, in exchange for a fee or premium.
• Origin: From Old English underwrītan ("to write under, subscribe"), a loan-translation of Latin subscribere; the insurance sense (1620s) derives from the practice of signing one's name under risk details on a Lloyd's of London slip.

Key Terms

SEBI

• Pronunciation: /ˈseɪ.biː/
• Definition: The Securities and Exchange Board of India is the statutory regulatory body established on 12 April 1988 as a non-statutory body and given statutory powers on 30 January 1992 under the SEBI Act, 1992, with a mandate to protect investor interests, regulate the securities market, and promote capital market development. Its 9-member board comprises the Chairman (currently Tuhin Kanta Pandey, since 1 March 2025), 2 members from the Ministry of Finance, 1 from RBI, and 5 members nominated by the Union Government (at least 3 full-time). SEBI regulates both BSE (Asia's oldest exchange, established 1875) and NSE (established 1992), overseeing a market capitalisation exceeding USD 5 trillion.
• Context: Initially set up on 12 April 1988 as an administrative body; given statutory status on 30 January 1992 under the SEBI Act, 1992. Headquartered in Mumbai (Bandra Kurla Complex). Three core functions: protective (prohibits insider trading, price rigging, fraudulent practices; enforces disclosure norms), regulatory (registers and regulates brokers, merchant bankers, mutual funds, credit rating agencies, depositories), and developmental (promotes investor education, electronic trading, market infrastructure). Landmark reforms: T+1 settlement cycle implemented from January 2023 — India became the first major market globally to adopt T+1 for all listed securities; T+0 optional settlement launched from April 2025 for top 500 stocks by market cap. Social Stock Exchange (SSE) framework for social enterprises (NPOs and for-profit social enterprises) to raise funds. BRSR Core (Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting) mandatory for top 250 listed companies from FY 2025-26, including value chain ESG disclosures. In March 2026 (213th Board meeting), SEBI approved FPI net settlement for cash market outright transactions, lowered Social Impact Fund minimum investment from Rs. 2 lakh to Rs. 1,000, and imposed stricter conflict-of-interest rules on its own officials. India's total stock market capitalisation stood at approximately USD 5,092 billion (February 2026). Mutual fund AUM reached ~Rs. 82 lakh crore with SIP monthly inflows exceeding Rs. 31,000 crore (December 2025).
• UPSC Relevance: GS3 Economy — Prelims: established 12 April 1988 (statutory 30 January 1992 under SEBI Act), headquartered in Mumbai, 9-member board (Chairman + 2 MoF + 1 RBI + 5 government nominees), three functions (protective, regulatory, developmental), current Chairman Tuhin Kanta Pandey (since March 2025), T+1 settlement (India first major market), regulates BSE (Sensex, 1875) and NSE (Nifty, 1992); Mains: effectiveness of SEBI in protecting retail investors amid rising SIP culture (Rs. 31,000+ crore/month), regulation of new financial instruments (REITs, InvITs, Social Stock Exchange, crypto-assets debate), T+1 and T+0 settlement reforms and their impact on market efficiency and FPI participation, BRSR and ESG disclosure mandates — balancing sustainability reporting with compliance burden, capital market reforms as enablers of economic growth (India's market cap crossed USD 5 trillion).

Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code

• Pronunciation: /ɪnˈsɒl.vən.si ænd ˈbæŋk.rʌpt.si kəʊd/
• Definition: The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016 (IBC) is India's consolidated, time-bound insolvency resolution law enacted on 28 May 2016, providing a structured Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP) with a statutory timeline of 180 days (extendable to 330 days including litigation), adjudicated by the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) and regulated by the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI). The IBC replaced multiple overlapping statutes (SICA 1985, BIFR, Recovery of Debts Due to Banks Act, SARFAESI) and has contributed to reducing Gross NPAs from 11.5% (March 2018) to a historic low of 2.1% (September 2025).
• Context: Enacted on 28 May 2016, the IBC was a transformative reform that shifted insolvency resolution from a "debtor-in-possession" to a "creditor-in-control" model. Resolution plans have been approved for over 1,300 corporate debtors, realising about Rs. 4 lakh crore for creditors (by September 2025). The IBC's deterrent effect is even more significant — 30,310 cases were settled before formal CIRP admission (pre-admission settlements worth Rs. 13.78 lakh crore by December 2024), as promoters sought to avoid losing control. Recovery rate improved from 28.3% (FY24) to 36.6% (FY25) per Economic Survey 2025-26. IBC accounted for 48% of total bank recoveries in FY 2023-24. However, significant challenges persist: average CIRP resolution time is 713 days overall and 853 days for cases closed in FY25, far exceeding the 330-day statutory limit; 78% of ongoing CIRP cases had exceeded the 270-day limit as of March 2025. The IBC Amendment Bill 2025 introduces a Creditor-initiated Insolvency Resolution Process (CIIRP) — an out-of-court mechanism requiring 51% (by value) of specified financial creditors to agree, with management remaining with the debtor under Resolution Professional oversight. The waterfall mechanism under Section 53 determines the priority of claims: insolvency resolution costs > secured creditors/workmen dues > unsecured creditors > government dues > equity holders.
• UPSC Relevance: GS3 Economy — Prelims: enacted 28 May 2016, IBBI as regulator, NCLT as adjudicating authority, CIRP timeline (180 days, extendable to 330), replaced BIFR/SICA, waterfall mechanism under Section 53 (priority: resolution costs > secured creditors/workmen > unsecured > government > equity), 1,300+ resolution plans approved, recovery rate 36.6% (FY25); Mains: evaluate IBC's effectiveness — recovery rates improving but timeline adherence is the biggest failure (853 days average vs 330-day limit), deterrent effect (Rs. 13.78 lakh crore settled pre-admission — the "shadow of the law" argument), IBC's role in reducing NPAs from 11.5% to 2.1%, challenges (delays, deep haircuts, going concern value erosion during prolonged CIRP), 2025 Amendment Bill introducing out-of-court CIIRP — will it reduce NCLT burden, should IBC be extended more effectively to personal insolvency (currently limited) and cross-border insolvency (UNCITRAL Model Law adoption).