BharatNotes Overview
World War II (1939–1945) became the catalyst for the final phase of the freedom struggle. British desperation for Indian support, combined with rising Indian frustration, led to the most radical mass movement — the Quit India Movement (1942) — and the emergence of the demand for Pakistan.
Congress Ministries and World War II (1937–1939)
Provincial Elections of 1937
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Under | Government of India Act, 1935 (provincial autonomy) |
| Congress performance | Won in 7 of 11 provinces — Madras, UP, CP, Bihar, Orissa, Bombay, and NWFP |
| Muslim League | Poor performance — won only 109 of 482 Muslim seats across India; failed to form government in any province |
| Congress ministries | Formed governments in the 7 provinces; attempted land reform, education expansion, debt relief for peasants |
Resignation of Congress Ministries (1939)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Trigger | Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India a belligerent in World War II (3 September 1939) without consulting Indian leaders or the Central Legislature |
| Congress demand | Demanded clarification of British war aims and a promise of independence after the war |
| British refusal | Vague promises of Dominion Status "after the war" — unacceptable to Congress |
| Result | All 7 Congress provincial ministries resigned by November 1939 |
| Muslim League response | Jinnah declared 22 December 1939 as "Deliverance Day" — celebrating the end of "Hindu majority Congress tyranny" |
The Pakistan Resolution (23 March 1940)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Passed at | Muslim League session at Lahore |
| Date | 23 March 1940 |
| Key demand | Geographically contiguous Muslim-majority areas in north-western and eastern India should be grouped to constitute "independent states" — though the word "Pakistan" was not used in the resolution text |
| Moved by | Fazlul Haq (Chief Minister of Bengal) |
| Context | Growing Muslim League conviction that Muslims could not get fair treatment in a Hindu-majority India; influenced by Allama Iqbal's 1930 address (envisioned a Muslim state in north-west India) and Choudhary Rahmat Ali (coined the name "Pakistan" in 1933) |
Cripps Mission (March 1942)
Background
By early 1942, the war situation had turned dire for Britain. Japan had overrun Malaya, captured Singapore (15 February 1942), and was advancing through Burma towards India's eastern frontier. The fall of Rangoon (March 1942) brought the war to India's doorstep. Under pressure from the United States (President Roosevelt urged Churchill to make concessions to India) and the need for wholehearted Indian support in the war, Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to India.
Sir Stafford Cripps, a Labour member of the War Cabinet known for his sympathy towards Indian independence, arrived in Delhi on 22 March 1942. The proposals were publicly announced on 30 March 1942.
Proposals and Failure
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Sent by | British PM Winston Churchill (under American and Chinese pressure, and after Japan's rapid advance in Southeast Asia) |
| Led by | Sir Stafford Cripps (Labour member of the War Cabinet, sympathetic to India) |
| Key proposals | (1) An Indian Union with Dominion Status after the war, free to remain in or leave the Commonwealth; (2) A Constituent Assembly after the war — partly elected by provincial assemblies, partly nominated by princely states; (3) Any province could opt out of the Indian Union and frame its own constitution; (4) Defence to remain under British control during the war |
| Congress rejection | Dominion Status (not full independence) was inadequate; the opt-out clause (enabling partition) was unacceptable; defence remaining with the British meant Indians had no real power during the war; the Viceroy's overriding powers were not curbed |
| Gandhi's reaction | Called it a "post-dated cheque on a failing bank" — the promise of Dominion Status after the war was meaningless if Britain itself might lose the war |
| Nehru and Azad | Initially willing to negotiate but talks collapsed over the defence portfolio — Cripps could not guarantee an Indian Defence Member with real power |
| Muslim League rejection | The proposals did not explicitly guarantee Pakistan; the League wanted a clear commitment to a separate Muslim state |
| Result | Complete failure; convinced Congress that nothing short of immediate British withdrawal would work; directly led to the Quit India resolution |
The Quit India Movement (August 1942)
Launch — August Kranti
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| CWC resolution | The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha (14 July 1942) adopted the original resolution demanding complete independence and sanctioning mass civil disobedience |
| AICC ratification | Ratified by the All India Congress Committee (AICC) on 8 August 1942; the resolution was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru and seconded by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel |
| Venue | Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay (now August Kranti Maidan) |
| Gandhi's call | "Do or Die" — "Here is a mantra, a short one, that I give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The mantra is 'Do or Die'. We shall either free India or die in the attempt." |
| Also called | August Kranti (August Revolution); Bharat Chhodo Andolan |
| Demand | Immediate and unconditional British withdrawal from India; a provisional government would be formed to conduct the war as a free nation in alliance with the Allied powers |
British Response — Operation Zero Hour
The British government, forewarned by intelligence, launched a pre-emptive crackdown codenamed Operation Zero Hour:
| Action | Detail |
|---|---|
| Mass arrests | Gandhi and the entire Congress leadership — Nehru, Patel, Azad, Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani — arrested before dawn on 9 August 1942 under the Defence of India Rules, 1939; the speed of the arrests was designed to decapitate the movement before it could organise |
| Gandhi's detention | Imprisoned at the Aga Khan Palace, Pune (1942–1944); his wife Kasturba Gandhi died there (22 February 1944); his secretary Mahadev Desai also died there (15 August 1942) |
| Scale of repression | Machine-gun fire on crowds; aerial strafing of protesters in parts of Bihar and eastern UP; over 100,000 arrested; estimated 10,000 killed in police and military action; collective fines imposed on entire villages |
| Congress banned | Declared an unlawful organisation; offices sealed; funds frozen; press censorship imposed; Congress publications banned |
| Gandhi's fast | In February 1943, Gandhi undertook a 21-day fast in detention to protest the government's demand that he condemn the violence; the government refused to release him, causing a national crisis |
Underground Movement
With all top leaders in prison, the movement was kept alive by a remarkable underground network of young leaders who evaded arrest:
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) | Escaped from Hazaribagh Central Jail on Diwali night (9 November 1942) by scaling a 17-foot wall with five associates; formed the Azad Dasta (Freedom Brigade) — a guerrilla group to disrupt British administration; operated from the Nepal border; rearrested in 1943 and tortured at Lahore Fort; released in 1946 |
| Ram Manohar Lohia | Operated underground for nearly two years, evading British intelligence; helped set up the clandestine Congress Radio in Bombay and Calcutta; published underground pamphlets including How to Establish an Independent Government and Do or Die; arrested on 20 May 1944; imprisoned until April 1946 |
| Aruna Asaf Ali | Presided over the remaining AICC session on 9 August after leaders were arrested; hoisted the Congress tricolour at Gowalia Tank Maidan amid police lathi charges and tear gas; went underground and coordinated resistance; called the "Queen of 1942" and later the "Grand Old Lady of the independence movement" |
| Usha Mehta | At age 22, organised the secret Congress Radio (42.34 metres wavelength), which first broadcast on 27 August 1942 from Bombay with the words: "This is the Congress Radio calling on 42.34 metres from somewhere in India"; the station operated for about three months from shifting locations before being discovered; sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment in the Radio Conspiracy Case (May 1943) |
| Sucheta Kripalani | Evaded arrest and worked underground — distributed leaflets, organised protests, and mobilised women across regions; founder of the All India Mahila Congress (1940); eventually arrested in 1944 and detained for a year |
| Achyut Patwardhan | Organised underground resistance networks in Maharashtra; supported the Satara Prati Sarkar parallel government; coordinated with other underground leaders across western India |
Parallel Governments
Several areas overthrew British authority and established parallel governments — a striking feature unique to the Quit India Movement:
| Government | Location & Duration | Key Leaders | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ballia National Government | Ballia, UP (19–22 August 1942) | Chittu Pandey (called "Tiger of Ballia" by Nehru) | About 50,000 armed people marched to free arrested leaders; the District Magistrate himself lowered the British flag and transferred power; the first parallel government of QIM; crushed by British military within 4 days |
| Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar | Tamluk, Midnapore, Bengal (17 December 1942 – 31 August 1944) | Satish Chandra Samanta, Sushil Kumar Dhara, Ajoy Mukherjee | Set up departments for War, Health, Law and Order, Education, Justice, Finance, Food and Famine Relief; formed an armed militia called Bidyut Bahini (Lightning Force); provided cyclone and famine relief; operated for nearly 2 years |
| Prati Sarkar | Satara, Maharashtra (August 1943 – May 1946) | Nana Patil ("Krantisimha") | The longest-lasting parallel government (about 3 years); operated in over 150 villages; ran Nyayadan Mandals (people's courts), schools, and revenue collection; had strong peasant support; British rule effectively ended in large parts of Satara district |
Nature and Character
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Leaderless movement | With all Congress leadership in jail, the movement was largely spontaneous and leaderless |
| Violence | Despite Gandhi's call for non-violence, the movement turned violent in many places — railway lines cut, telegraph wires destroyed, government buildings attacked, police stations burned |
| Mass participation | Factory workers, students, peasants, women — broader participation than any previous movement |
| Limitations | Muslim League did not participate; Communist Party of India opposed it (supported the war after the USSR was attacked by Germany); princely states largely unaffected |
Role of Women
Women played a particularly prominent role in the Quit India Movement, stepping into leadership positions vacated by arrested male leaders:
- Aruna Asaf Ali — Hoisted the flag at Gowalia Tank; became the face of the underground movement
- Usha Mehta — Ran the clandestine Congress Radio from Bombay at age 22
- Sucheta Kripalani — Led underground Congress activities, mobilised women across regions; founder of the All India Mahila Congress (1940)
- Matangini Hazra — A septuagenarian (born 1870) fondly called "Gandhi Buri" (Old Lady Gandhi); led a procession of about 6,000 volunteers to capture the Tamluk police station on 29 September 1942; shot dead by British police while holding the tricolour, her last words being "Vande Mataram"
- Thousands of unnamed women — factory workers, students, peasant women — participated in processions, cut telegraph wires, and courted arrest
Common Mistake: Gandhi launched Quit India but was arrested within hours. He did NOT direct the day-to-day movement. The movement was largely spontaneous and leaderless — underground leaders (JP, Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali) kept it alive. Don't credit Gandhi with directing the operations.
International Context
The Quit India Movement did not occur in a vacuum — it was shaped by the global dynamics of World War II:
| Factor | Detail |
|---|---|
| Japan's advance | Japan captured Singapore (February 1942), overran Burma, and reached India's eastern frontier; the fall of Rangoon (March 1942) created a direct military threat to India |
| INA and Subhas Bose | The Indian National Army (INA) was formed in 1942 from Indian POWs captured by Japan in Southeast Asia; Subhas Chandra Bose took command in 1943 and declared the Provisional Government of Azad Hind; the INA advanced into India in 1944 but was defeated at the Battle of Imphal |
| American pressure | The US pressed Britain to make concessions to India to secure Indian support for the war; this partly motivated the Cripps Mission |
| Allied concerns | Britain feared that Indian discontent could aid the Japanese; however, the British chose repression over conciliation |
| China's role | Chiang Kai-shek visited India in February 1942 and publicly urged Britain to grant India real political power — adding to the international pressure on Churchill |
| Impact on war effort | Despite repression, Indian soldiers continued to fight for the Allies; however, the political crisis damaged Britain's moral standing as a "defender of freedom" |
Timeline of Key Events (1942–1943)
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 22 March 1942 | Sir Stafford Cripps arrives in Delhi |
| 30 March 1942 | Cripps Mission proposals announced |
| 11 April 1942 | Cripps Mission fails; Cripps leaves India |
| 14 July 1942 | CWC at Wardha adopts Quit India resolution |
| 8 August 1942 | AICC ratifies the resolution at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay; Gandhi gives "Do or Die" call |
| 9 August 1942 | All top Congress leaders arrested before dawn; Aruna Asaf Ali hoists the flag at Gowalia Tank |
| 15 August 1942 | Mahadev Desai (Gandhi's secretary) dies in detention at Aga Khan Palace |
| 19 August 1942 | Parallel government declared in Ballia under Chittu Pandey |
| 27 August 1942 | Congress Radio begins broadcasting from Bombay |
| 9 November 1942 | JP escapes from Hazaribagh Jail on Diwali night |
| 17 December 1942 | Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar formed in Midnapore |
| February 1943 | Gandhi undertakes 21-day fast in detention |
| Mid-1943 | Prati Sarkar established in Satara; movement ebbs in most other areas |
| 22 February 1944 | Kasturba Gandhi dies at Aga Khan Palace, Pune |
| 6 May 1944 | Gandhi released from detention on health grounds |
Post-Quit India: Road to Independence (1945–1946)
Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (1945)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Background | With the war ending, Viceroy Lord Wavell visited London (May 1945) and formulated a plan to break the political deadlock |
| Announced | 14 June 1945 — simultaneously by L.S. Amery in the House of Commons and by Wavell in Delhi |
| Key proposals | A new Executive Council with all Indian members except the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief; an Indian member for External Affairs; equal representation (parity) for "caste Hindus" and Muslims in the Council |
| Simla Conference | Convened on 25 June 1945 to discuss the plan with Indian leaders |
| Failure | The Muslim League under Jinnah insisted on being the sole nominator of Muslim members to the Council; Congress refused to accept this claim as it had its own Muslim members; Jinnah's veto led to the conference's collapse |
| Significance | The failure demonstrated that Hindu-Muslim unity on power-sharing was becoming impossible; it strengthened the case for partition |
RIN Mutiny (February 1946)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| What | Mutiny by ratings (sailors) of the Royal Indian Navy — the most significant armed forces revolt since 1857 |
| Date | Began 18 February 1946 aboard HMIS Talwar in Bombay |
| Causes | Racial discrimination, poor food and living conditions, inequities in pay between British and Indian sailors, and rising nationalist sentiment |
| Spread | Within days, spread to 78 ships and 20 shore establishments across Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta, Madras, Cochin, and Vizagapatam; over 20,000 ratings participated |
| Nationalist slogans | Sailors raised slogans of "Jai Hind" and "Inquilab Zindabad"; hoisted the Congress tricolour, the Muslim League flag, and the Communist Party flag together on their ships |
| End | Sardar Patel persuaded the ratings to surrender; the mutiny ended on 23 February 1946 |
| Significance | Demonstrated that Britain could no longer rely on Indian armed forces to maintain colonial rule; this realisation — that the instrument of coercion itself was turning nationalist — was a decisive factor in hastening the British decision to transfer power |
UPSC Relevance
Prelims Focus Areas
- Congress ministries: won 7/11 provinces (1937); resigned November 1939
- Pakistan Resolution: 23 March 1940, Lahore; moved by Fazlul Haq
- Cripps Mission: March 1942; "post-dated cheque on a failing bank" — Gandhi
- Quit India: 8 August 1942; Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay; "Do or Die"
- AICC resolution moved by Nehru, seconded by Patel
- Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the flag at Gowalia Tank on 9 August 1942
- Underground leaders: JP (escaped Hazaribagh on Diwali 1942), Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta (Congress Radio — 42.34 metres), Sucheta Kripalani
- Parallel governments: Ballia (Chittu Pandey), Tamluk (Satish Chandra Samanta), Satara (Nana Patil — longest at ~3 years)
- Gandhi detained: Aga Khan Palace, Pune; Kasturba died there (22 Feb 1944)
- Wavell Plan: 1945; Hindu-Muslim parity in Executive Council; failed at Simla Conference
- RIN Mutiny: 18 February 1946; HMIS Talwar, Bombay; 78 ships, 20,000 ratings
Mains Focus Areas
- Did the Quit India Movement hasten or delay independence?
- Why was QIM leaderless? Assess the underground movement's effectiveness
- Compare the three major Gandhian movements: NCM, CDM, QIM
- Role of World War II in India's independence
- Was the Congress justified in demanding British withdrawal during wartime?
- Why did the Muslim League not participate in Quit India?
- Assess the significance of the RIN Mutiny in hastening the British decision to leave India
- Role of parallel governments (Satara, Tamluk, Ballia) — how did they challenge colonial authority?
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
82nd Anniversary of Quit India Movement — August 9, 2024
August 9, 2024 marked the 82nd anniversary of the Quit India Movement (August 8–9, 1942) — observed as August Kranti Diwas (Revolution Day). Commemorations were held at Gowalia Tank (August Kranti) Maidan, Mumbai — the site of Gandhi's "Do or Die" speech. The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav digital archive (2021–2025) has documented the underground resistance networks, parallel governments, and the role of rural India in sustaining the movement through 1942–44 when all Congress leadership was imprisoned.
UPSC angle: Prelims — August Kranti Diwas (August 9); Gowalia Tank Maidan; "Do or Die"; Aruna Asaf Ali (hoisted INC flag August 9, 1942). Mains GS1 — nature of Quit India as a popular uprising; parallel governments; leaderless resistance.
Partition Museum and Oral History — Documenting the Road from 1942 to 1947 (2024)
The Partition Museum (Amritsar, Town Hall) and its Delhi branch (Dara Shukoh Library, Ambedkar University) have been expanding their digital archives of partition testimonies. The Museum is actively collecting testimonies from the last generation of 1947 witnesses (now in their 80s–90s). The connection between the Quit India Movement's failure to achieve immediate independence, the 1945–46 INA trials, the RIN Mutiny, and the eventual 1947 partition is now richly documented in oral history form.
UPSC angle: Prelims — Partition Museum, Amritsar. Mains GS1 — from Quit India to Partition: sequence of events; Cabinet Mission failure; communal violence.
Vocabulary
Underground
- Pronunciation: /ˌʌndəˈɡraʊnd/
- Definition: Operating in secret, outside the established political or legal system; in the context of the Quit India Movement, refers to the clandestine network of leaders (such as Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali) who evaded arrest and coordinated resistance after the British imprisoned the entire Congress leadership.
- Origin: From Old English under ("beneath") + grund ("ground, foundation"); the political sense of "secret, clandestine organisation" dates from the early 19th century, popularised by European resistance movements.
Parallel Government
- Pronunciation: /ˈpærəlɛl ˈɡʌvənmənt/
- Definition: An alternative administrative structure established by a resistance movement to replace or displace the authority of the ruling power in a given territory; during the Quit India Movement, parallel governments were set up in Ballia, Tamluk (Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar), and Satara (Prati Sarkar) to administer justice, collect revenue, and provide public services.
- Origin: From Greek parallēlos ("beside one another") + Old French governement ("act of governing"); the concept was identified by Gene Sharp as the ultimate tactic of nonviolent revolution in his catalogue of 198 methods.
Repression
- Pronunciation: /rɪˈprɛʃən/
- Definition: The use of force or authority by a government to suppress political dissent, restrict civil liberties, and crush opposition movements; during the Quit India Movement, British repression included mass arrests of over 100,000 people, machine-gun fire on crowds, aerial strafing, press censorship, and collective fines on villages.
- Origin: From Latin repressiōnem ("a pressing back, restraint"), from reprimere ("to press back"), from re- ("back") + premere ("to press"); first attested in English in the late 14th century.
Key Terms
August Kranti
- Pronunciation: /ˈɔːɡəst ˈkrɑːnti/
- Definition: Literally "August Revolution," the popular name for the Quit India Movement launched on 8 August 1942, when the All India Congress Committee at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay ratified the resolution demanding immediate British withdrawal from India; the site was renamed August Kranti Maidan in commemoration.
- Context: The slogan "Quit India" was coined by Yusuf Meherally (Mayor of Bombay); all Congress leaders were arrested within hours of the resolution, and the movement continued as a leaderless mass uprising; the "August Kranti Maidan" in Mumbai commemorates the site.
- UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India). Prelims: tested on date (8 August 1942), venue (Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay), slogan coiner (Yusuf Meherally, not Gandhi), and the leaderless nature of the movement after mass arrests. Mains: UPSC 2024 GS-I directly asked about events leading to the Quit India Movement and its results. Focus on why this was the most radical of all Congress-led movements and how it demonstrated that British control was unsustainable without Indian cooperation.
Do or Die
- Pronunciation: /duː ɔːr daɪ/
- Definition: The rallying call given by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 at the launch of the Quit India Movement — "Here is a mantra, a short one, that I give you... The mantra is 'Do or Die'. We shall either free India or die in the attempt" — which encapsulated the movement's demand for total commitment to independence.
- Context: Hindi equivalent is "Karo ya Maro"; Gandhi gave this call despite knowing the British would arrest all Congress leaders; the slogan marked a departure from Gandhi's earlier emphasis on disciplined non-violence toward a more confrontational stance.
- UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Modern India) & GS4 (Ethics). Prelims: tested as a factual association — "Do or Die" = Quit India Movement (1942), distinguishing from "Swaraj is my birthright" (Tilak) and other slogans. Mains: relevant for discussing Gandhian philosophy's evolution from constructive programme to confrontation, and for GS4 ethics questions on moral courage and civil resistance. Focus on how this slogan represented the culmination of 22 years of Gandhian mass movements.
Sources: Bipan Chandra — India's Struggle for Independence, NCERT — Themes in Indian History Part III, Sumit Sarkar — Modern India, Francis Hutchins — India's Revolution, R.C. Majumdar — History of the Freedom Movement in India
