BharatNotes Overview
Indian classical music is one of the world's oldest continuous musical traditions, rooted in the Samaveda (the Veda of melodies). It evolved into two major streams — Hindustani (North) and Carnatic (South) — which diverged gradually from the 13th century CE, partly due to Islamic influence on northern musical traditions. Both systems share the fundamental concepts of Raga (melody) and Tala (rhythm) but differ in form, instruments, and performance style.
Ancient Roots
The origins of Indian classical music trace back to the Samaveda, the third of the four Vedas, whose name literally means "Veda of songs." The Samaveda contains notated melodies for chanting Rigvedic hymns — these are among the oldest surviving musical notations in the world. The sage Narada is traditionally credited as the first mortal to receive the art of music from the divine realm. The Naradiya Shiksha, a text attributed to Narada, connects the seven svaras of Sama gana with the seven notes of classical music and describes three gramas (Shadja, Madhyama, and Gandhara).
Bharata Muni's Natyashastra (c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE), a foundational treatise on the performing arts comprising 36 chapters, devotes chapters 28 to 33 to music — covering vocal and instrumental music (melodic and rhythmic) and their deployment in drama. The Natyashastra describes scales, melodic modes, and the relationship between music and rasa (aesthetic emotion).
Foundational Concepts
| Concept | Detail |
|---|---|
| Shruti | Microtonal intervals; 22 shrutis in an octave — the smallest perceptible pitch differences |
| Swara | Seven basic notes — Sa (Shadja), Re (Rishabha), Ga (Gandhara), Ma (Madhyama), Pa (Panchama), Dha (Dhaivata), Ni (Nishada); equivalent to Western Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti |
| Raga | Melodic framework for improvisation and composition; defined by specific ascending (Aroh) and descending (Avaroh) note patterns; each raga has a distinct mood, time of day, and season associated with it |
| Tala | Rhythmic cycle; a repeating pattern of beats that structures the temporal dimension of music |
| Alap | Slow, free-rhythm introduction of a raga without percussion (Hindustani); establishes the mood and identity of the raga |
| Rasa | Aesthetic emotion evoked by the raga — linked to the Navarasa (nine emotions) from the Natyashastra |
Key Texts on Music
| Text | Author / Period | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Samaveda | Vedic period | Oldest known musical text; melodies for chanting Rigvedic verses |
| Natyashastra | Bharata Muni (c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE) | Foundational text on music, dance, and drama |
| Brihaddeshi | Matanga (c. 6th–8th century CE) | First text to describe Raga in its modern sense |
| Sangita Ratnakara | Sharangadeva (13th century) | "Ocean of Music" — encyclopaedic treatise; composed during the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri; considered the definitive classical text on Indian music; describes both Hindustani and Carnatic systems before they fully diverged |
Hindustani vs Carnatic Music
| Feature | Hindustani (North) | Carnatic (South) |
|---|---|---|
| Region | Northern, central, and western India | Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana |
| Islamic influence | Significant — absorbed Persian and Arabic elements from the 13th century (Sufi music, qawwali) | Minimal — remained closer to ancient Sanskrit tradition |
| Vocal vs Instrumental | Both equally important; some forms are purely instrumental | More thoroughly vocal-oriented; instruments imitate the voice |
| Improvisation | Extensive improvisation is central (Alap, Jor, Jhala) | More structured; compositions are central with improvisation within the framework |
| Key vocal forms | Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri, Tarana, Ghazal | Kriti, Varnam, Padam, Javali, Tillana |
| Gharana system | Yes — lineage-based schools of performance | No — emphasis on compositions and composer lineage |
| Performance time | Ragas associated with specific times of day/night and seasons | Time theory exists but less strictly followed in practice |
Hindustani Music
Major Vocal Forms
| Form | Character |
|---|---|
| Dhrupad | Oldest surviving Hindustani form; serious, meditative; 4 sections (Sthayi, Antara, Sanchari, Abhog); accompanied by Pakhawaj; associated with Swami Haridas and Tansen |
| Khayal | Most popular form today; romantic and imaginative; two parts — Bada Khayal (slow) and Chhota Khayal (fast); greater scope for improvisation than Dhrupad |
| Thumri | Light classical; romantic themes (Radha-Krishna); originated in Lucknow courts; emotional expressiveness over formal structure |
| Tarana | Fast-tempo composition with syllabic words (ta na na, dir dir); attributed to Amir Khusro |
| Ghazal | Urdu poetic form set to music; themes of love and longing; popularised in the 20th century by Begum Akhtar, Mehdi Hassan |
Gharanas of Hindustani Music
| Gharana | Founder(s) | Speciality | Key Exponents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gwalior | Haddu Khan, Hassu Khan, Natthu Khan (grandsons of Nathan Pir Bakhsh) | Oldest khayal gharana; balanced, disciplined approach | Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, Balkrishnabua Ichalkaranjikar |
| Agra | Haji Sujan Khan; developed by Ghagge Khudabaksh | Dhrupad-influenced khayal; powerful voice | Ustad Faiyaz Khan ("Aftab-e-Mausiqi"), S.N. Ratanjankar |
| Jaipur-Atrauli | Ustad Alladiya Khan (1855–1946) | Complex raga elaboration; emphasis on technical precision | Kesarbai Kerkar, Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Mallikarjun Mansur |
| Kirana | Abdul Karim Khan, Abdul Wahid Khan | Melodic beauty; slow, meditative approach | Sawai Gandharva, Bhimsen Joshi (Bharat Ratna), Gangubai Hangal, Prabha Atre |
| Patiala | Ali Baksh Khan, Fateh Ali Khan | Fast taans (melodic runs); thumri and tappe style of Punjab | Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan |
| Mewati | Ghagge Nazir Khan, Wahid Khan (late 19th century, Holkar Court) | Bhakti (devotional) orientation | Pandit Jasraj |
Tansen (c. 1493–1589)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Full name | Miyan Tansen (born Ramtanu Pandey into a Gaur Brahmin family of Gwalior) |
| Guru | Trained under Swami Haridas of Vrindavan |
| Patron | Joined Emperor Akbar's court in 1562; became one of the Navratnas (nine jewels); received the honorific title "Mian" |
| Significance | Regarded as the father of Hindustani classical music; developed several ragas (including Miyan ki Todi, Miyan ki Malhar, Darbari Kanada) |
| Legend | Said to have lit lamps by singing Raga Deepak and brought rain with Raga Megh Malhar |
| Legacy | His sons and daughter (Bilas Khan, Surat Sen, Sarat Sen, Tarang Khan, Saraswati) all became accomplished musicians; the Tansen Samaroh (music festival) is held annually at his tomb in Gwalior |
Raga-Time Theory (Prahar System)
In Hindustani music, ragas are associated with specific times of the day. The 24-hour cycle is divided into eight prahars (watches) of three hours each — four for the day and four for the night. This system was systematised by Pandit V.N. Bhatkhande in the early 20th century.
| Classification | Rule | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Purvanga Vadi Ragas | Dominant note (vadi) in the lower tetrachord; generally performed between 12 AM – 12 PM | Raga Bhairav (sunrise), Raga Todi (late morning) |
| Uttaranga Vadi Ragas | Dominant note (vadi) in the upper tetrachord; generally performed between 12 PM – 12 AM | Raga Bhimpalasi (afternoon), Raga Yaman (early evening) |
Carnatic Music
Key Vocal Forms
| Form | Character |
|---|---|
| Kriti | Central form of Carnatic music; composed with deep raga and tala structure; three sections (Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charanam); most compositions of the Trinity are Kritis |
| Varnam | Technical composition used at the beginning of concerts; combines all aspects of raga and tala |
| Padam | Slow, emotional composition; themes of devotion; associated with the Devadasi dance tradition |
| Javali | Light, romantic; faster tempo than Padam |
| Tillana | Rhythmic composition with syllables; equivalent of Tarana in Hindustani music; used as concert finale |
The Carnatic Trinity
| Composer | Period | Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Tyagaraja | 1767–1847 | Composed primarily in Telugu; devotion to Lord Rama; over 700 compositions (Kritis); the Tyagaraja Aradhana festival at Thiruvaiyaru (Tamil Nadu) is held annually in his honour |
| Muthuswami Dikshitar | 1775–1835 | Composed in Sanskrit; elaborate, meditative style; compositions explore rare ragas; influenced by Western (Carnatic) violin tradition |
| Syama Sastri | 1762–1827 | Composed in Telugu; devotion to Goddess Kamakshi; fewest compositions of the three but renowned for rhythmic complexity |
Purandara Dasa (1484–1564)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Title | "Pitamaha (Father) of Carnatic Music" |
| Contribution | Systematised Carnatic music teaching; developed the graded lesson structure (Swaravali, Janti Varase, etc.) still used today; composed in Kannada |
Musical Instruments
Hindustani Instruments
| Instrument | Type | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Sitar | String (plucked) | Most recognised Indian instrument globally; 20 frets; sympathetic strings; popularised internationally by Pandit Ravi Shankar |
| Sarod | String (plucked) | Fretless; deep, contemplative tone; Amjad Ali Khan, Ali Akbar Khan |
| Tabla | Percussion | Pair of drums (Dayan and Bayan); primary accompaniment for Hindustani music; Zakir Hussain |
| Santoor | String (struck) | Trapezoidal box; 100 strings struck with mallets; Pandit Shivkumar Sharma brought it to Hindustani classical |
| Shehnai | Wind (reed) | Double-reed instrument; auspicious occasions; Ustad Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna, 2001) |
| Sarangi | String (bowed) | Closest to the human voice; accompaniment instrument; Pandit Ram Narayan |
| Bansuri | Wind (flute) | Bamboo transverse flute; Hariprasad Chaurasia |
| Pakhawaj | Percussion | Barrel-shaped drum; accompanies Dhrupad |
Carnatic Instruments
| Instrument | Type | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Veena (Saraswati Veena) | String (plucked) | South Indian lute; fretted; the quintessential Carnatic instrument |
| Mridangam | Percussion | Double-headed drum; primary accompaniment in Carnatic music |
| Violin | String (bowed) | Adapted for Carnatic music in the 18th century; played seated; M.S. Gopalakrishnan, Lalgudi Jayaraman |
| Nadaswaram | Wind (reed) | Large double-reed; temple music; auspicious occasions; powerful sound |
| Ghatam | Percussion | Clay pot; subtle rhythmic accompaniment |
| Thavil | Percussion | Barrel drum; accompanies Nadaswaram |
Folk Music Traditions
| Tradition | Region | Key Features | UNESCO/Recognition |
|---|---|---|---|
| Baul | Bengal | Mystic folk songs; Lalon Fakir; wandering minstrels blending Sufi and Vaishnava traditions | UNESCO Intangible Heritage (2005) |
| Lavani | Maharashtra | Energetic, rhythmic; dholki drum; themes of love, social commentary; performed with Tamasha | |
| Pandavani | Chhattisgarh | Narrative singing of Mahabharata; Teejan Bai (Padma Vibhushan); two styles — Kapalik and Vedamati | |
| Maand | Rajasthan | Semi-classical; performed in royal courts; romantic themes; Allah Jilai Bai | |
| Rabindra Sangeet | Bengal | Songs composed by Rabindranath Tagore; over 2,500 songs; national anthems of India and Bangladesh | |
| Qawwali | North India | Sufi devotional music; Amir Khusro (13th century); Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan popularised globally | |
| Bhangra | Punjab | Harvest celebration (Baisakhi); dhol drum; energetic group performance |
UPSC Relevance
Prelims Focus Areas
- Hindustani vs Carnatic: key differences (gharana vs no gharana, Islamic influence)
- Carnatic Trinity: Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri (18th–19th century)
- Tansen: Navratna of Akbar; father of Hindustani music; Gwalior
- Purandara Dasa: father of Carnatic music; systematised teaching
- Sangita Ratnakara: Sharangadeva; 13th century; definitive classical text
- 7 Swaras: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni; 22 Shrutis
- Instruments with artistes: Shehnai–Bismillah Khan, Sitar–Ravi Shankar, Santoor–Shivkumar Sharma
- Dhrupad: oldest Hindustani vocal form; Khayal: most popular today
- Baul music: UNESCO Intangible Heritage (2005); Bengal
- Samaveda: oldest musical text; Narada credited with codifying music
- Brihaddeshi by Matanga: first text to define Raga
Mains Focus Areas
- Discuss the syncretic nature of Hindustani music — how did Hindu and Islamic traditions merge?
- Compare Hindustani and Carnatic traditions — divergence and commonalities
- Role of court patronage (Mughal, Maratha, South Indian kingdoms) in the evolution of Indian music
- Should Indian classical music be made part of school curricula? Discuss
- Impact of globalisation on Indian classical music — preservation vs evolution
Recent Developments (2024–2026)
Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards 2024 — Classical Music Recognition
The President of India conferred Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards for 2022 and 2023 to 94 artists in 2024, including masters of Hindustani and Carnatic classical music traditions. The Akademi Ratna (Fellowship) was bestowed on 7 eminent artists for lifetime contribution. These awards — the highest Indian recognition for performing arts — affirm institutional support for both major classical music traditions.
UPSC angle: Prelims — Sangeet Natak Akademi, Akademi Puraskar, Akademi Ratna. Mains GS1 — classical music traditions; role of national academies in cultural preservation.
UNESCO ICH — Sankirtan of Manipur's Continued Relevance (2024–25)
Sankirtana — the ritual singing, drumming, and dancing of Manipur, inscribed on UNESCO's ICH Representative List in 2013 — remains one of India's most distinctive ICH entries. The 20th UNESCO ICH Committee session hosted by India at Red Fort (December 2025) spotlighted India's diverse intangible heritage, including performing arts traditions. The Sangeet Natak Akademi has been documenting regional music traditions — including Manipuri classical music connected to Sankirtana — for digital preservation.
UPSC angle: Prelims — Sankirtana (Manipur, UNESCO ICH 2013). Mains GS1 — Manipuri classical tradition; India's ICH elements.
Vocabulary
Raga
- Pronunciation: /ˈrɑːɡə/
- Definition: A melodic framework for improvisation and composition in Indian classical music, defined by specific ascending and descending note patterns, associated moods, and often a prescribed time of day for performance; each raga has the ability to "colour the mind" and evoke a particular aesthetic emotion.
- Origin: From Sanskrit rāga ("colour, dye, hue; passion, feeling"), from the root raj/rañj ("to colour, to be dyed"); the term in its modern musical sense was first defined in Matanga's Brihaddeshi (c. 8th century CE).
Tala
- Pronunciation: /ˈtɑːlə/
- Definition: A rhythmic cycle with a specific number of beats (ranging from 3 to 128) that recurs in the same pattern throughout a musical performance, providing the temporal framework within which melody and improvisation unfold in Indian classical music.
- Origin: From Sanskrit tāla ("palm of the hand, clap; rhythm"), related to the practice of keeping time by hand-clapping; codified in Sharangadeva's Sangita Ratnakara (13th century).
Gharana
- Pronunciation: /ɡəˈrɑːnɑː/
- Definition: A lineage-based school or tradition in Hindustani classical music and dance, defined by a distinct style of performance, specific techniques, and a repertoire passed down through generations of a family or master-disciple chain (guru-shishya parampara).
- Origin: From Hindi gharānā, from ghar ("house, home"), from Sanskrit gṛha ("house"); the system emerged in the 18th-19th centuries as musical families developed and transmitted distinctive performance styles.
Key Terms
Hindustani Music
- Pronunciation: /ˌhɪndʊˈstɑːni ˈmjuːzɪk/
- Definition: The classical music tradition of northern, central, and western India that diverged from the southern Carnatic tradition around the 13th century CE, characterised by extensive improvisation, the gharana system, and the absorption of Persian and Arabic musical elements through Sufi and Mughal court influences.
- Context: Key gharanas include Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur-Atrauli, Kirana, Patiala, and Rampur-Sahaswan; major forms include Dhrupad (oldest), Khayal (most popular), Thumri, and Tappa; Tansen (Akbar's court) is considered the father of Hindustani music.
- UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Art & Culture). Prelims: tested on the Hindustani-Carnatic divergence (c. 13th century), key gharanas, major forms (Dhrupad, Khayal), and prominent musicians (Tansen, Amir Khusrau). Mains: relevant for discussing cultural synthesis during the medieval period, the gharana system as a knowledge transmission method, and India's intangible cultural heritage. Focus on comparing Hindustani (improvisation-based, gharana system, Persian influence) with Carnatic (composition-based, guru-shishya, Sanskrit basis) music.
Carnatic Music
- Pronunciation: /kɑːˈnɑːtɪk ˈmjuːzɪk/
- Definition: The classical music tradition of South India (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana), characterised by a predominantly vocal orientation, structured composition-based performance, and relative preservation of ancient Sanskrit musical principles with minimal Islamic influence.
- Context: Codified by Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), the "Father of Carnatic Music"; the Trinity of Carnatic Music — Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri — composed its core repertoire; instruments include veena, mridangam, and violin.
- UPSC Relevance: GS1 (Art & Culture). Prelims: tested on the Carnatic Trinity (Tyagaraja, Dikshitar, Syama Sastri), the "Father" (Purandara Dasa), key instruments (veena, mridangam), and the composition-based performance structure. Mains: relevant for discussing South Indian cultural traditions, the preservation of ancient musical systems, and the December music season in Chennai as a living cultural institution. Focus on knowing the key differences from Hindustani music and the major composers and their contributions.
Sources: Sangeet Natak Akademi (sangeetnatak.gov.in), ITC Sangeet Research Academy, NCERT — An Introduction to Indian Art, Raghava Menon — The Penguin Dictionary of Indian Classical Music
